pakdurunnes

LIST OF CONTENTS

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
The history of English Language Teaching in Indonesia…………………………………………… 1
1. Curricula 1950 and 1958…………………………………………………………………………………. 1
2. Curricula 1962 and 1968…………………………………………………………………………………. 2
3. Curriculum 1975…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
4. Curricula 1984 and 1994…………………………………………………………………………………. 3
5. Curricula 2004 and 2006…………………………………………………………………………………. 6
Characteristics of Good Student and Teacher…………………………………………………………. 9
Approach, Method, and Techniques………………………………………………………………………. 12
Grammar Translation Method
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 14
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 15
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 15
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 15
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 16
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18
Direct Method
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 22
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 22
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 23
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 23
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 23
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 24
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 26
Audio-Lingual Method
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 27
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 27
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 28
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 29
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 29
Silent Way
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 35
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 35
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 36
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 36
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 36
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 40
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 40
Desuggestopedia
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 41
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 41
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 42
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 42
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 43
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 44
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
Suggestopedia
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 46
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 46
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 47
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 47
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 48
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 48
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 49
Community Language Learning
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 50
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 50
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 51
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 51
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 51
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 52
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 52
Total Physical Response (TPR)
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 53
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 53
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 54
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 54
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 54
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 54
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 55
Communicative Language Teaching
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 56
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 57
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 57
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 57
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 58
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 59
Content-Based Instruction
1. a. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 62
2. b. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 62
3. c. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 63
4. d. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 63
5. e. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 64
6. f. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 67
7. g. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 68

Task Based Approach……………………………………………………………………………………………
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 70
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 71
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 72
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 73
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 73
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 74
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 77
Participatory Approach
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 80
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 80
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 80
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 81
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 81
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 82
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 82
Learning Strategy Training
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 83
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 84
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 89
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 89
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 90
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 92
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 93
Cooperative Learning
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 95
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 95
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 96
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 97
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 98
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 103
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 104
Multiple Intelligences
1. Definition……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 105
2. Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 105
3. Goal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 109
4. Teacher and Students Role………………………………………………………………………………. 110
5. Technique of Presentation……………………………………………………………………………….. 110
6. Advantages and Disadvantages……………………………………………………………………….. 111
7. Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 112

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 115

I. Introduction
II. The history of English Language Teaching in Indonesia

There are four major points to be critically investigated in the discussion about the ‘how’ English language being taught as a foreign language in high schools in Indonesia (SMA). They are objective, contents, methods and evaluation. For every curriculum under investigation each of these four points will be highlighted. The success or failure of Teaching/Learning English as a foreign language in SMA will be pinpointed in the discussion on each of these four major points.

a. Curricula 1950 and 1958

Objective: English as a foreign language taught within the context of Indonesian education system in 1950 and 1958 were stated in the 1950 and 1958 curricula (Bire, 1996). These curricula were planned in Jakarta, the Capital of Indonesia, and subsequently implemented at high school (SMA) throughout the country. The objective outcome of the TEFL within these curricula as deduced from teaching/learning materials in the said curricula is to enhance reading skills. The enhancement of reading skills as intended in these curricula is to help Indonesian students to be able to read books written in English language.

Contents: The old curricula, the 1950 and the 1958, consisted of teaching materials which are basically lessons on English grammar. Teachers of English language throughout the country have freedom to develop their own lesson plans on the basis of items listed in the curricula. The main difference between the 1950 curriculum and the 1958 curriculum is that the later contains list of items to be taught where as the former does not.

Method: The method of teaching English as a foreign language in Indonesia during the period of 1950 and 1958 curricula was grammar-translation oriented. Grammar-translation method was the chosen method to achieve the objective outcome of the curricula which was basically ‘reading oriented’ namely to help Indonesian students to be able to read books written in English.

Evaluation: Evaluation at the end of study period, testing students’ English language comprehension after three years of study, reveals that grammar translation method had been the dominant factor in the whole process (Bire, 1996). Even the evaluation does not match with the objective of teaching. The following table shows the four points that are taken into consideration in evaluating the TEFL in the country.

b. Curricula 1962 and 1968

Objective: The 1962 and the 1968 curricula known respectively as ‘new curriculum’ and ‘a new modified curriculum’ have the same objective as that of 1950 and 1958 curricula discussed earlier, namely the enhancement of reading skills. It is intended to help Indonesian graduates to be able to read 90% of books and other materials printed in English that are housed in the libraries throughout the country. This objective outcome is specifically stated in the 1968 curriculum (Depdikbud R.I., a: Bire, 1966).

Contents: During the period of the implementation of the1962 and 1968 curricula, the government provided text books for high schools. All departments are required to use the materials made available as laid out in the text books (Bire, 1966:103). It was clearly stated that all high school students in all streams, -Humanities, Arts and Science- are required to use the same text books and materials provided by the government. Materials contained in the text books, however, were basically structure oriented. Thus, even though the objective is to enhance reading skills the materials provided were basically structure oriented and therefore, indicates a case mismatch.

Methods: In order to achieve the goals of teaching English in Indonesia, the government preferential option was to favor the oral or the audio lingual approach for TEFL (Bire, 1966:103). Unfortunately, there was no text books yet made available to correspond this methodological approach, this approach was tried only at the senior high school level (Tjokrosujoso, 1944:4). When the text books became available, it was apparent that materials contained in the text books were apparently structure and reading oriented.

Evaluation: The evaluation process within this curriculum was based on structure and reading oriented (Bire, 1966). This is due to the fact that the teachers at schools throughout the country were products of the old fashioned curriculum, grammar translation methodological approach. Naturally the way they teach would reflect and replicate what they themselves have learnt. It is noticeable that there were some teachers who chose to use direct method. However, they were faced with difficulties at the end of academic year because materials for final examination was based on structure and reading oriented.

c. Curriculum 1975

Objective: The fundamental aim of teaching English as a foreign language in high schools in Indonesia as clearly stated in the 1975 curriculum itself is to enhance students’ reading ability (Depdikbud, b 1975). It corresponds with the points elucidated by Tomlison (1987:1): “(1). To enable students to develop a reading competence appropriate for the study in the tertiary education and (2). To give students working knowledge of English” This objective was adopted as stated in
the light of the importance of English language as the primary foreign language in Indonesia dominating trades, transportation, foreign affairs, science and technology.

Contents: Teaching materials in the 1975 curriculum were prepared in a way that they are contextual and reflect the language level of the students. Each individual teacher is advised to follow the sequential order of topical materials laid out in the curriculum and to match each subtopics of the lesson plan with his/her specific defined objective and or interest. The curriculum materials were described as follows:

Methods: The teaching of English as a foreign language using the 1975 curriculum follows the ‘Eclectic approach’, with special emphasis on the improving of the efficiency of teaching learning process (Rudiyanto, 1988: 52). It means that teachers are required to use a combination of related methods of TEFL. In addition to this, Rudiyanto claims that the curriculum only provides guidelines and but not the details of how to implement the approach. In normal practice in the curriculum would have the following methodological are features:

Each teacher tends to interpret the eclectic approach from his or her point of view, knowledge and experience. However, due to the lack of details and instruction about the ‘how’ to implement the eclectic approach, the nation was not able to establish uniformity of lesson plan and strategy of delivery, resulting in each teachers making his/her own strategy consisting of any combination of some of the methodological features stated above.

Evaluation: The 1975 curriculum recommended the type of test that measures the students’ achievements. For this aim, the teachers are advised to follow the evaluation guidelines provided by the department of education and culture, consisting of the elements of the purpose of evaluation and the kinds of evaluation to be used. The recommended kinds of evaluation are the form of formative, summative, placement and diagnostic tests that comprise the cognitive domains of recall, comprehension and application (Rudiyanto, 1988). Furthermore, tests could be conducted in the form of written essays or objective test which is conducted either orally or in the written form.

d. Curricula 1984 and 1994

The 1984 National curriculum endorsed at the beginning of 1985 consists of four main sources:

The 1984 Senior High School National Curriculum, Basis, Programs and Development, covers general ideas of the curriculum, its implementation, the basis, program, the objectives and the development principles of senior high school education.
The instructional guide and the management of the 1984 Senior High School Curriculum deals with the teaching program, curriculum process, administration and supervision.
The second instructional guide for the senior high school counseling career is comprised of an introduction, a basic counseling and a career package.
The basis course outline (BCO) for each lesson comprises of an introduction to the program, some important notes for the implementation of the 1984 curriculum, the structure of the program and the course outlines.

The curriculum is based on a credit system, system that offers two distinctive program courses: ‘Core subjects’ and ‘Electives’. “Core subjects” comprises of 15 subjects which are compulsory for all students and are offered in the first and the second semesters. In the third semester through the sixth semester, some of the subjects were dropped and the students may choose electives which may reflect the students’ areas of interest and or natural talent. The amount of credits that can be gained by students would be the same for all, even for those who dropped some of the core subjects. This is due to the fact that, while they drop some of the subjects on the one hand, they pick up the difference by doing selective subjects on the other.

The 1994 curriculum was endorsed in the academic year 1994/1995 in response to the decree of Ministry of Education and Culture No. 061/U/1993 dated 25 February 1993 (Depdikbud R.I. d, 1994). This curriculum applied similar methodological approach, communicative approach, as that of 1984 curriculum.

Objective: The curriculum has only one common objective for all program streams. The students must possess both the willingness and the ability to use English, especially in reading, comprehension, speaking and in writing essays up to 4000 words demonstrating knowledge of complex English sentence structure (Depdikbud R. I. c, 1986). Ideally, the communicative principle implemented in the 1984 curriculum to be based on the goal of learning English (Tomlinson 1987). This means the teacher is to act as a facilitator, an independent participant, an organizer, a guide, a researcher, a needed analyst, a counselor and a group process manager as required in the communicative approach. However, all the aforementioned ideas are considered to be barriers for the English Language teacher in Indonesia.

Contents: The suggested way of presenting materials based on the communicative approach are the group activities, language games and role plays (Savigon, 1983 in Richards et al., 1990: 81). Linguists such as Finnochiaro and Brumfit suggest the presentation of brief dialogue, homework assignments and oral evaluation (Richards et al., 1990: 81). The 1984 curriculum does not contain language games or similar activities. On the contrary, the presentation of structure in this curriculum is similar to the grammar-oriented approach.

Methods of TEFL: A literature review of the national high school basic curriculum shows that the TEFL in Indonesia prior to 1984 was grammar-translation oriented, that is, teaching of English was not communication oriented. The ministry of Education and Culture recognized the inefficiency of the 1975 curriculum and officially implemented a new policy to replace that curriculum. Accordingly, the government of Indonesia changed the practical teaching of English in Indonesia to concentrate more on both form and function in communication. Consequently, the national curriculum ideas, the form and function were implemented (Depdikbud R.I. c, 1986). The 1984 Curriculum that was implemented to replace the 1975 curriculum was based on communicative approach which deals with assumptions, beliefs and ideas developed from a theory of language as a tool of communication (Richards et al., 1990). This approach which is well known and widely used in language teaching is based on ideas from British and American linguists, John Firth (1972); M.A.K. Hallliday, (1970,1973); Dell Hymes, (1972) and John Gumperz, (1972). This approach was chosen as a result of dissatisfaction with the previous approaches.

There are different approaches for the implementation of the communicative approach (i). The communicative approach leads to specific objectives in the domain of reading, writing, listening or speaking (Richards et al, 1990:73), but the 1984 curriculum included two other domains namely structure and vocabulary (Depdikbud R.I. c, 1986). These two are actually belonged in the domain of structural approach (Richards et al, 1990:3-4). In the context of EFL, these two domains belong to the aspect of conscious learning (Dullay et al, 1982: 11; Littlewood in Das, 1985: 1). Hence one can see that the 1984 curriculum, while it is designed to focus on communicative approach, it is in fact still show its roots in the structural approach.

The 1994 curriculum was implemented with some modifications in the form, content and presentation. This curriculum is user friendly in helping teachers to be creative in preparing lesson plans and teaching activities. The approach used is communicative, the same as that in the previous curriculum but with more emphasis on language skills rather than on components of language.

Evaluation: The 1994 curriculum used integrative evaluation whereas the 1984 curriculum used discrete evaluation. Even evaluation in this curriculum is considered integrative, listening and speaking skills were excluded and Reading and structure still dominates the evaluation exactly as what took place in the previous curriculum.

e. Curricula 2004 and 2006

Language teaching in this curriculum is based on CBC by using Communicative Language Competency model (Celce-Murcia, et al, 1995), Semiotic social (Halliday, 1978) and integrated literacy Perspective modification based on “Kem’s Model” (2000). Language teaching with these models’ oriented are developed for CBC in Indonesia in its entirety.

The objectives of teaching/learning English in Indonesia according to the 2004 curriculum are clearly stated in the curriculum document (Depdiknas b, 2003: 14) as:

ü Mengembangkan kemampuan berkomunikasi dalam bahasa tersebut dalam
bentuk lisan dan tulisan. Kemampuan berkomunikasi melipti mendengar
(listening), berbicara (speaking), membaca (reading), dan menulis (writing)

ü Menumbuhkan kesadaran tentang hakikat dan pentingnya Bahasa Inggris
sebagai slah satu Bahasa asing untuk menjadi alat utama belajar

ü Mengembangkan pemahaman tentang saling keterkaitan antar bahasa dan
budaya serta memperluas cakrawala budaya. Dengan demikian siswa
memiliki wawasan lintas budaya dan melibatkan diri dalam keragaman
budaya.

The above objective statement clearly describes Indonesian intention to develop students’ ability to be able to communicate in English either through oral or written form. The idea imbedded in the objective was the teaching and learning of English should be done through all four-language skills(both oral and written communications).

Contents of TEFL: In the 2004 curriculum, teaching learning activities developed to enlarge students’ continuing skills development are based on “Remedial” and “Enrichment” Programs to alleviate quality of education in the country.

There are some practical principles used in developing the 2004 curriculum as:

– Competency based model

– Language model

– Literacy degree of the graduated students

– The development of language competence from listening to writing

Various language competence Model seen from various perspectives have been experimented in Language Teaching and Learning, however, the 2004 Curriculum applied language competency by Celce-Murcia, Domyei and Thurrell (1996).

a. Discourse Competence

b. Actional Competence

c. Sociocultural Competence

d. Strategic Competence

Pedagogically speaking, in English teaching, the above components support the reaching of the main competence, discourse competence. Language experts agree that when one communicates with others either orally or in written form, the speakers/writers are engaged in a discourse (Communication event influenced by a topic being communicated, interpersonal relations among those who are engaged in the communications used in a cultural context).

a. Content

Language when used contextually influences, decides and interrelates with the language someone chooses to use when he/she creates and interprets a text. In any given context, everybody uses language to do three main functions:

– Ideational function

– Interpersonal function

– Textual function

Pedagogically speaking, each language teaching should use these three functions to reach a Language teaching and learning in both cultural and situational context. In a teaching learning English, concept of genre dominated all texts in the 2004 curriculum.

b. Text

Verbal communication activity is a process of creating message either oral or written as a response and an interpretation within a discourse. It shows that a text is a combination of situational context and cultural context to be understood by others in the language context (compare listening and written forms). Therefore, the 2004 curriculum aims at preparing students with good and acceptable language organization (Depdiknas c, 2003: 5). The English language subject for Junior High School Standard Competency is described as follow: (Understanding various meaning of interpersonal, ideasional, and contextual) language features, such as: Descriptive, Narrative, Spoof/recount, Procedure, Report, and etc.

The four language skills are treated as integrated learning interaction. Hence, the type of teaching, where each skill being treated independently, is not being suggested in this curriculum. On the contrary, it stands as a challenge for teachers to find out the best way to overcome literacy problem for beginners by offering integrated skills teaching. Therefore, a syllabus designer needs to provide various learning experiences which are based on Competence Model, Language Model, Literacy level and different language skills pertaining to written and spoken language. This is considered to be an extremely difficult task for a language teacher.

Methods of TEFL: This curriculum is elaborated according to eight basic assumptions about teaching/learning competencies as:

that a systematic approach to teaching is beneficial to your learners, your
colleges and yourself;
that learning is a deeply personal, individual process, for each of us;
that you teach people first, and subject matter second;
1. that learning is richer and more reward process if it can be shared with other
  people;
2. that risks are worth taking and mistake can be growth points;
3. that experience only leads to change if it is filtered through reflection;
4. that development take courage as well as imagination;
  1. that the most useful attribute you can develop as a teacher or trainer is
    flexibility. (Castling, 1996: 2)

In the teaching/learning interaction, it is advisable for teachers to begin teaching activities by identifying learners’ needs so that all teaching/learning activities are focused on the stated objectives and there is no time wasted. There is an interlinking process where each level has a logical connection with the next process. Each teacher starts his/her work with learners’ need analysis that naturally directs the teachers to plan a learning process. This plan directs programmer to present a variety of teaching and the learners can be monitored easily to attain what they want to reach. Then evaluate each level’s affectivity of the cycle. Therefore, the duty of a teacher is to adapt teaching practice starting from identifying learners’ needs, followed by the teaching/learning procedure and then repeat the process.

Evaluation. Evaluating the entire process of teaching/learning is done by monitoring the students’ activity from the beginning to the end. For students’ ability in oral and written product, a checklist is used for a long-term evaluation, while for indicators’ prove, a portfolio is used to monitor the students’ competency. Those who are competent can proceed to the next activities, while those who fail are advised to do remedial. In reality, the valuation that was done nationally related to three skills namely Listening, Reading, Writing excluding Speaking.

The above description concerning objective, contents, approach/methods and evaluation of TEFL in Indonesia based on the 2004 curriculum shows that hard works have been performed and time and money have been well spent for the success of teaching/learning English in this country. However, an argument for the implementation of the 2004 curriculum showed that a mismatch among the above items still happened as it did in the previous curricula two years prior to the implementation of the 2004 curriculum. This failure has led Indonesian Educational authorities and experts to take action to apply what is called the 2006 curriculum, which is currently being implemented.

Therefore, all Senior High School students who sit for the final examination in the year 2008 are being the last group of the products of the 2004 curriculum. Obviously it is stated that at the 2006 curriculum should be further developed to be used by all schools in the academic year 2009/2010 (BSNP, 2006).

Therefore, the curriculum used in the country is developed into a way to meet the demand of the community. Reviewing the latest curriculum, the implementation of the 2006 curriculum matches the above suggested approach.

III. Characteristics of Good Student and Teacher

v Good Student

It is important that every student, in all grades, be aware of the basics of being a good student. These skills or characters, of being a good student in school, can be carried over to many other aspects of life. Here are the characteristics of good student:

Attitude

Basically, a good student possesses the ability and willingness to learn new subjects even if the subjects are not interesting.

Academic skills

Acquiring academic skills is the most important quality of a good student. Ability to read comprehensively, to write effectively, to speak fluently, and to communicate clearly are the key areas in which a student must be proficient. Having a good command in all these areas will make a student to be prominent in the class.

Ability

Good students have the ability to apply the results of their learning in to a creative way and achieve the goals.

Perceptive

How well a student can interpret and perceive meanings from a conversation greatly determines his or her quality as a good student. A good student always perceives right meaning from conversations, but average student often misunderstands the original thoughts of a speaker or writer and produces a wrong conclusion.

Self-Discipline

Discipline in managing the time is an important factor that every good student must possess. Often delaying the tasks, such as writing assignments, reading text books, etc, may negatively impact the ability of a student to achieve the goals.

Understanding rather than memorizing concepts

Resolving any doubts by asking about them on the spot is always a good thing. Several surveys suggest students must understand the concepts rather than just memorize them. The memorized facts and theories will stay in student’s memory only a few times until they leave school, college, or university. Once out of school, the students will totally forget the core concepts that they had learnt. Therefore, it is essential for a good student to understand the concepts.

v Good Teacher

There are some skills or character that a teacher must have so he or she can called a good teacher. The qualities of a good teacher require some skills or character below.

Empathy

You have the ability to bond with your students, to understand and resonate with their feelings and emotions, to communicate on their level, to be compassionate with them when they are down and to celebrate with them when they are up.

Positive Mental Attitude

You are able to think more on the positive and a little less on the negative, to keep a smile on your face when things get tough, to see the bright side of things, to seek to find the positives in every negative situation, and to be philosophical.

3. Open to change

You are able to acknowledge that the only real constant in life is change. You know there is a place for tradition but there is also a place for new ways, new ideas, new systems, and new approaches. You don’t put obstacles in your way by being blinkered and are always open and willing to listen to others’ ideas.

Role Model

You are the window through which many young people will see their future. Be a fine role model.

Creative
You are able to motivate your students by using creative and inspirational methods of teaching. You are different in your approach and that makes you stand out from the crowd. Hence the reason why students enjoy your classes and seek you out for new ideas.
Sense of Humor

You know that a great sense of humor reduces barriers and lightens the atmosphere especially during heavy periods. An ability to make your students laugh will carry you far and gain you more respect. It also increases your popularity.

Presentation Skills

You know that your students are visual, auditory or kinesthetic learners. You are adept at creating presentation styles for all three. Your body language is your main communicator and you keep it positive at all times. Like a great orator you are passionate when you speak. But at the same time you know that discussion and not lecturing stimulates greater feedback.

Calmness
You know that the aggression, negative attitudes and behaviors that you see in some of your students have a root cause. You know that they are really scared young people who have come through some bad experiences in life. This keeps you calm and in control of you, of them and the situation. You are good at helping your students de-stress.
Respectful
You know that no one is more important in the world than anyone else. You know that everyone has a place in the world. You respect your peers and your students. Having that respect for others gets you the respect back from others.
Inspirational
You know that you can change a young person’s life by helping them to realise their potential, helping them to grow, helping them to find their talents, skills and abilities.
Passion
You are passionate about what you do. Teaching young people is your true vocation in life. Your purpose in life is to make a difference.
Willing to Learn

You are willing to learn from other teachers and even your students. Although knowledgeable in your subject you know that you never stop learning.

IV. Approach, Method, and Techniques

Antony (1963) was perhaps the first in modern times to articulate a framework for understanding the constituents of method. His purpose, a laudable one, was to provide much-needed coherence to the conception and representation of elements that constitute language teaching. He proposed a three-way distinction: approach, method, and technique. He defined approach as “a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language and the nature of language teaching and learning. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught. It states a point of view, a philosophy, an article of faith . . .” (Antony, 1963, pp. 63–64). Thus, an approach embodies the theoretical principles governing language learning and language teaching. A method, however, is “an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. An approach is axiomatic, a method is procedural” (p. 65). As such, within one approach there can be many methods. Methods are implemented in the classroom through what are called techniques. A technique is defined as “a particular trick, stratagem, or contrivance used to accomplish an immediate objective” (p. 66). The tripartite framework is hierarchical in the sense that approach informs method, and method informs techniques.

When it was introduced, the Antony framework was welcomed as a helpful tool for making sense of different parts of language teaching operations, and it was in use for a long time. However, a lack of precise formulation of the framework resulted in a widespread dissatisfaction with it. Antony himself felt that modifications and refinements of his framework are “possible” and even “desirable” primarily because the distinction between approach and method on one hand, and method and technique on the other hand, was not clearly delineated. The way approach and method are used interchangeably in some of the literature on L2 teaching testifies to the blurred boundaries between the two. Secondly, the inclusion of specific items within a constituent is sometimes based on subjective judgments. For instance, Antony considered pattern practice a method, and imitation a technique when, in fact, both of them can be classified as classroom techniques because they both refer to a sequence of classroom activities performed in the classroom environment, prompted by the teacher and practiced by the learner.

The Antony framework is flawed in yet another way. It attempted to portray the entire language teaching operations as a simple, hierarchical relationship between approach, method, and technique, without in any way considering the complex connections between intervening factors such as societal demands, institutional resources and constraints, instructional effectiveness, and learner needs. After taking these drawbacks into consideration, Clarke (1983) summarized the inadequacy of the Antony framework thus:

Approach, by limiting our perspective of language learning and teaching, serves as a blinder which hampers rather than encourages, professional growth. Method is so vague that it means just about anything that anyone wants it to mean, with the result that, in fact, it means nothing. And technique, by giving the impression that teaching activities can be understood as abstractions separate from the context in which they occur, obscures the fact that classroom practice is a dynamic interaction of diverse systems. (p. 111)

In short, the Antony framework did not effectively serve the purpose for which it was designed.

V. Grammar Translation Method
1. h. Definition

Grammar – Translation Method is a method of language learning that is taught to promote intellectuality through ‘mental gymnastics’, was until relatively recently held to be indispensable to an adequate higher education and focus on grammatical rules, memorization of vocabulary, and of various declensions and conjugations, translations of the texts, doing written exercise (Brown: 11).

Grammar – Translation Method is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language and its language learning consists of little more than memorizing rules and facts in order to understand and manipulate the morphology and syntax of the foreign language (Richards: 3).

Grammar – Translation Method is taught that foreign language learning would help students grow intellectually, was recognized that students would probably never use the target language, but mental exercise of learning it would be beneficial anyway and also trough study of grammar of target language, students would become more familiar with the grammar of their native language so that would help them speak and write their native language better (Larsen: 11)

From the definitions above we conclude that grammar translation method is a method of teaching foreign language which requires students to translate the text into the target language to their native language or vice versa, to memorize numerous grammatical rules and vocabularies.

i. Characteristics

Here the characteristics of Grammar Translation Method:

Students are taught to translate from one language to another.
Students study grammar deductively; that is, they are given the grammar rules and examples, are told to memorize them, and then are asked to apply the rules to other examples.
They also study grammatical paradigms such as verb conjugations.
Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking or listening.
The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice.
Accuracy is emphasized.
The students’ native language is the medium of instruction. So the classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.
Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.
j. Goal

Grammar translation method has a fundamental purpose of learning a foreign language, such as to be able to learn literature written in the target language. In addition, it is believed that studying a foreign language provides students with good mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign language study.

k. Teacher and Students Role

In grammar and translation method, there is still traditional rule. The teacher is the authority in the classroom. The teacher only translates material into the students’ native language. Teacher speaks mostly use students’ native language.

The rule of students is only doing whatever as the teacher says. So that they can learn what the teacher knows. The students are more passive in learning process.

l. Technique of Presentation

There are still some useful techniques associated with the Grammar-Translation Method. Below is an expanded description of some of these techniques.

Translation of a literary passage

Students translate a reading passage from the target language into their native language. The reading passage then provides the focus for several classes: vocabulary and grammatical structures in the passage are studied in subsequent lessons.

Reading comprehension questions

Students should answer three groups of questions in the target language based on their understanding. The first group of questions asks for information contained within the reading passage. The second group of questions, students will have to make inferences based on their understanding of the passage. The third group of questions requires students to relate the passage to their own experience.

Antonym/synonyms

Students are given one set of words and are asked to find antonyms or synonyms in reading passage. Or students might be asked to define a set of words based on their understanding of them as they occur in the reading passage.

Cognates

Students are taught to recognize cognates by learning the spelling or sound patterns that correspond between the languages. In addition, students are also asked to memorize words that look like cognates but have meanings in the target language that are different from those in the native language.

Deductive application of rule

Grammar rules are presented with examples. Students understand rule, they asked to apply it to some different examples.

Fill-in-the-blanks

Students are given a series of sentences with words missing. They fill in the blanks with new vocabulary items or with items of a particular grammar type.

Memorization

Students are given lists of the target vocabulary words and their native language equivalents and are asked to memorize them and also memorize grammatical rule and grammatical paradigms.

Use words in sentences

Students make up sentences in which they use the new words.

Composition

The teacher gives the students a topic to write about in the target language. The topic is based upon some aspect of the reading passage of the lesson. Sometime, students also are asked to prepare a précis of the reading passage.

m. Advantages and Disadvantages

The grammar translation method has two main advantages; they are:

The phraseology of the target language is quickly explained. Translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and phrases from one language into another. Any other method of explaining vocabulary items in the second language is found time consuming. A lot of time is wasted if the meanings of lexical items are explained through definitions and illustrations in the second language. Further, learners acquire some sort of accuracy in understanding synonyms in the source language and the target language.
Teacher’s labor is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may ask comprehension questions on the text taught in the mother tongue. Pupils will not have much difficulty in responding to questions in the mother tongue. So, the teacher can easily assess whether the students have learned what he has taught them. Communication between the teacher and the learner does not cause linguistic problems. Even teachers who are not fluent in English can teach English through this method. That is perhaps the reason why this method has been practiced so widely and has survived so long.

Along with its advantages, the grammar translation method comes with many disadvantages, such as:

It is an unnatural method. The natural order of learning a language is listening, speaking, reading and writing. That is the way a child learns his mother tongue in natural surroundings; but, in the Grammar Translation Method the teaching of the second language starts with the teaching of reading. Thus, the learning process is reversed. This poses problems.
Speech is neglected. The Grammar Translation Method lays emphasis on reading and writing. It neglects speech. Thus, the students who are taught English through this method fail to express themselves adequately in spoken English. Even at the undergraduate stage they feel shy of communicating using English. It has been observed that in a class, which is taught English through this method, learners listen to the mother tongue more than that to the second/foreign language. Since language learning involves habit formation such students fail to acquire a habit of speaking English. Therefore, they have to pay a heavy price for being taught through this method.
Exact translation is not possible. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and exact translation from one language to another is not always possible. A language is the result of various customs, traditions, and modes of behavior of a speech community and these traditions differ from community to community. There are several lexical items in one language, which have no synonyms/equivalents in another language. For example, the meaning of the English word ‘table’ does not fit in such expressions as ‘table of contents’, ‘table of figures’, ‘multiplication table’, ‘time table’ and ‘table the resolution’, etc. English prepositions are also difficult to translate. Consider sentences such as ‘We see with our eyes’, ‘Bombay is far from Delhi’, ‘He died of cholera’, ‘He succeeded through hard work’. In these sentences ‘with’, ‘from’, ‘of’, and ‘through’ can be translated into the Hindi preposition ‘se’ and vice versa. Each language has its own structure, idiom and usage, which do not have their exact counterparts in another language. Thus, translation should be considered an index of one’s proficiency in a language.
It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when he internalizes its patterns to the extent that they form his habit. But the Grammar Translation Method does not provide any such practice to the learner of a language. It rather attempts to teach language through rules and not by use. Researchers in linguistics have proved that to speak any language, whether native or foreign, entirely by rule is quite impossible. Language learning means acquiring certain skills, which can be learned through practice and not by just memorizing rules. The persons who have learned a foreign or second language through this method find it difficult to give up the habit of first thinking in their mother tongue and then translating their ideas into the second language. They, therefore, fail to get proficiency in the second language approximating that in the first language. The method, therefore, suffers from certain weaknesses for which there is no remedy.
n. Application

The lesson plan bellow is the example of the application of Grammar-Translation Method.

Heute: Personalpronomen und possessive Adjektive
11:00 Warm up:
Wie sagt man auf deutsch:
What is your name?
My name is ….
What is your telephone number?
My telephone number is ….
Ask for volunteers to provide the German equivalents of several stock phrases they should already know, using possessive adjectives which are already familiar to them (mein , dein , perhaps sein ). Correct if necessary, but not on pronunciation.

11:03 Exercise I (Lesen) . See attached. Have students read aloud, go through the entire passage. Then return to the beginning and, calling on students at random, have them translate the sentences into English. New vocabulary (e.g. klagen , schätzen ) can be introduced at this time (by translation). Mistakes should be corrected, with special attention paid to today’s topic: personal and possessive pronouns.

11:10 Grammar explanation: personal pronouns (accusative). On chalkboard:
mein (meine, meinen) unser (unsere, unseren)
dein (deine, deinen) euer (euere, eueren)
sein (seine, seinen) ihr (ihre, ihren)
ihr (ihre, ihren) Ihr (Ihre, Ihren)
sein (seine, seinen)
Explain (in English) the use of these pronouns, and point out any discrepancies between English and German usage. Note especially the parallel formation to ein, as well as the accusative forms, and also explain the contractions (unsre , eure ).

11:15 Do exercise in DNK, p. 89 Übung 2 : students should fill in the blanks with the appropriate pronoun. If necessary, let students work individually or in pairs to complete the exercise first.

11:20 Exercise II (Sätze). Depending on level of comprehension, either call randomly to have students translate the sentences, or give them time to work quietly writing out the translations. Make sure answers are correct.

11:25 Grammar explanation: possessive pronouns. On chalkboard:
mich uns
dich euch
ihn sie
sie Sie
es

Explain (in English) the usage as well as the importance of distinguishing between nominative (ich , du , etc.) and accusative. Point out similarities to English: me = mich as memory aid, but warn against her ihr (but rather sie ).

11:30 Do exercise in DNK, p. 92 Übung 4: as above, students should be able to fill in the blanks with the correct possessive pronouns. Call randomly on students, making sure each has a chance to answer correctly.

11:35 Exercise III (Sätze). Again, call on students to translate the sentences into German, paying close attention to grammar. (Pronunciation is not heavily stressed.)

11:40 Exercise IV (Schreiben). Have students work quietly writing out the translation of the passage from English into German. Walk around and observe, answering questions and providing corrections where needed. If students do not finish, activity is assigned as homework.

Heute: Personalpronomen und possessive Adjektive.
I. Lesen. Lesen Sie den Text und übersetzen Sie ihn ins Englische.

Meine Familie ist sehr groß. Ich habe drei Schwestern und vier Brüder. Meine älteste Schwester heißt Claudia, und die zwei jüngeren Schwestern, Christiane und Nadine, sind Zwillinge. Sie haben am 28. Mai 1975 Geburtstag.

Mein Vater arbeitet bei einer großen Firma. Sein Chef ist sehr nett, aber mein Vater verdient nicht genug Geld. Meine Mutter klagt immer: Unsere Kinder haben keine schönen Sachen, und ihre Schuhe sind bald kaputt. Du mußt eine neue Stelle finden, wo man dich zu schätzen weiß!

Meine Mutter hat Recht: es ist nicht so leicht für uns. Mein Bruder hat morgen Geburtstag, und wir machen eine große Party für ihn. Wir haben aber keine Geschenke. Man braucht Geschenke bei einer Geburtstagsfete — ohne sie geht es einfach nicht! Außerdem kommen viele Gäste zu der Party, und wir haben kein Essen für sie. Es ist schwer für mich, aber ich muß gestehen: ohne Geld ist das Leben doch ein Problem für uns!

II. Sätze: Personalpronomen. Übersetzen Sie die Sätze ins Deutsche.
1. How do you like my new apartment? — I find it beautiful.
2. How do you like my new desk? — I find it modern.
3. How do you like my new car? — I find it excellent.
4. How do you like my two new chairs? — I find them comfortable.
5. I love you. Do you love me?
6. I love all of you. Do you all love me?
7. Do you know him? — No, but I know her.
8. Mr. Fischer, this book is for you.

III. Sätze: Possessive Adjektive. Übersetzen Sie die Sätze ins Deutsche.

1. Do you have my book?
2. No, but I have your pencil, your notebook and your cup.
3. Is the reporter writing all of your names down?
4. My sister is bringing her friend along.
5. Their dog doesn’t like our cat.
6. Mrs. Schmidt, I need your address, please.
7. My grandfather likes to talk about his grandchildren.
8. Does your mother love her children?

IV. Schreiben. Übersetzen Sie den Text ins Deutsche.

Christmas is an important holiday for our family. On the 24th of December we make a big dinner for the whole family — for my aunts and my uncles as well. We normally celebrate Christmas without them, but on the evening before we all eat together.
This year I need a lot of presents. My brother’s birthday is the 22nd of December, so we’re celebrating his birthday three days later, at Christmas. I have a tie for him, but I need something else — maybe I should also buy a shirt for him, but I don’t know his size.

For my father I have a book about Germany. Germany interests him a lot, and his favorite hobby is reading. The book is very big; hopefully my father will find it interesting.

For my two sisters I have a few toys — they’re still young, you see {=nämlich} . Their favorite toy at the moment is an old doll, but it’s almost broken. So I have a new doll: her face is very pretty, and her body is made of plastic. Hopefully my sisters can’t destroy it so quickly!

VI. Direct Method
1. h. Definition

The Direct method is a method which argues that no translation is allowed, but meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target language through the use of demonstration and visual aids, with no recourse to the students’ native language.

The Direct method is a method which argues that a foreign language could be taught without translation or the use of the learner’s native tongue if meaning is conveyed directly through demonstration and action

From definitions about direct method above, we can conclude that direct method is a particular way of teaching target language without any translation to native language, but meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target language through the use of demonstration and visual aids, with no recourse to the students’ native language.

i. Characteristics
1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language, translation is not allowed.
2. Teacher introduces a new target language word or phrase through the use of realia, pictures, or pantomime; he never translates it into the students’ native language.
3. Grammar is taught inductively; that is, the students are presented with examples and they figure out the rule or generalization from the examples. An explicit grammar rule may never be given. Students practice vocabulary by using new words in complete sentences.
4. Language is primarily spoken, not written. Students also study culture consisting of the history of the people who speak the target language, the geography of the country or countries where the language is spoken, and information about the daily lives of the speakers of the language.
5. Areas which are emphasized are vocabulary and grammar. Skills of language which are emphasized are listening and speaking.
6. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
7. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
8. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
9. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
10. The learner is actively involved in using the language in realistic everyday situations.
11. Students are encouraged to think in the target language.
12. Speaking is taught first before reading or writing.
13. j. Goal

The goal of this method is to prepare students to use the target language communicatively.

k. Teacher and Students Role

The teacher and the students are more like partners in the teaching or learning process. The initiation of the interaction goes both ways, from teacher to students and from student to teacher. Students also converse with one another as well.

l. Technique of Presentation
1. Reading aloud

Students take turns reading sections of a passage, play, or dialog out loud. At the end of each student’s turn, the teacher uses gestures, pictures, realia, examples, or other means to make the meaning of the section clear.

Question and answer exercise

The exercise is conducted only in the target language. Students are asked questions and answer in full sentences so that they practice new words and grammatical structures. They have the opportunity to ask questions as well as answer them.

Getting students to self-correct

The teacher of this class has the students self-correct by asking them to make a choice between what they said and an alternative answer he supplied. There are other ways of getting students to self-correct. For example, a teacher might simply repeat what a student has just said, using a questioning voice to signal to the student that something was wrong with it. Another possibility is for the teacher to repeat what the student said, stopping just before the error. The student knows that the next word was wrong.

Conversation practice

The teacher asks students a number of questions in the target language, which the students have to understand to be able to answer correctly. The teacher asked individual students questions about themselves. The questions contained a particular grammar structure. Later, the students were able to ask each other their own questions using the same grammatical structure.

Fill-in-the-blank exercise

All the items are in the target language; furthermore, no explicit grammar rule would be applied. Te students would have induced the grammar rule need to fill in the blanks from examples and practice with earlier parts of the lesson.

Dictation

The teacher reads the passage three times. The first time the teacher reads it at a normal speed, while the students just listen. The second time he reads the passage phrase by phrase, pausing long enough to allow students to write down what they have heard. Te last time the teacher again reads at a normal speed, and students check their work.

Map drawing

The class includes one example of a technique used to give students listening comprehension practice. The students are given a map with the geographical features unnamed. Then the teacher gives the students directions to label the unnamed geographical place on map.

Paragraph writing

The teacher asks the students to write a paragraph in their own words on the major geographical features of a place. They could have done this from memory, or they could have used the reading passage in the lesson as a model.

m. Advantages and Disadvantages

There are some advantages of using direct method:

The students are motivated to understand and pronounce words or sentences in foreign language that thought by the teacher, especially when the teacher uses media/ realia.
The students get more experience in speaking foreign language even only simple sentences at first.
The students are trained to speak in foreign language well.
It makes the learning of English interesting and lively by establishing direct bond between a word and its meaning.
It is an activity method facilitating alertness and participation of the pupils.
According to Macnee, “It is the quickest way of getting started”. In a few months over 500 of the commonest English words can be learnt and used in sentences. This serves as a strong foundation of further learning.
Due to application of the Direct Method, students are able to understand what they learn, think about it and then express their own ideas in correct English about what they have read and learnt.
Psychologically it is a sound method as it proceeds from the concrete to the abstract.
This method can be usefully employed from the lowest to the highest class.
Through this method, fluency of speech, good pronunciation and power of expression are properly developed.

There are some disadvantages of using direct method:

The weakness in the Direct Method is its assumption that a second language can be learnt in exactly the same way as a first, when in fact the conditions under which a second language is learnt are very different
Teaching and learning process will be passive if the teacher cannot motivate the students to participate the class discussion.
It is hard to apply in Indonesia since several teachers in Indonesia are not expert in speaking English.
There are many abstract words which cannot be interpreted directly in English and much time and energy are wasted in making attempts for the purpose.
This method is based on the principles that auditory appeal is stronger that visual. But there are children who learn more with visual than with their oral- aural sense like ears and tongue.
The method ignores systematic written work and reading activities and sufficient attention is not paid to reading and writing.
Since in this method, grammar is closely bound up with the reader, difficulty is experienced in providing readers of such kind.
There is dearth of teachers trained and interested in teaching English in this method.
This method may not hold well in higher classes where the Translation Method is found suitable.
In larger classes, this method is not properly applied and teaching in this method does not suit or satisfy the needs of individual students in large classes.
The Direct Method rejects use of the printed word – but this objection is illogical since second language learner has already mastered his reading skills.

n. Application

The direct method is describes as follows:

When teaching new vocabulary, the teacher explaining it by using realia, visual aids or demonstrations.
The teacher explains new vocabulary about part of our body. He/she can use learning media to attract the students and to improve their understanding. He/she can use realia or even their own art of body to emphasize the explanation.
Application of direct method in lower secondary school class in Italy:

The students read aloud a passage about United States geography.
The teacher points to a part of the map after each sentence is read.
The teacher uses the target language to ask the students if they have a question. The students use the target language to ask their questions.
The teacher answers the student’s questions by drawing on the blackboard or giving examples.
The teacher asks questions about the map in the target language, to which the students reply in a complete sentence in the target language.
Students ask questions about the map
The teacher works with the students on the pronunciation of ‘Appalachian’.
The teacher corrects a grammar error by asking the students to make a choice.
The teacher asks questions about the students; students ask each other questions.
The students fill in the blanks with prepositions practiced in the lesson.
The teacher dictates a paragraph about United States geography.
All of the lessons of the week involve United States geography.
A proverb is used to discuss how people in the U.S. view punctuality.

VII. Audio-Lingual Method
1. h. Definition

J. Harmer (2001: 79) explained “Audio-lingual methodology owed its existence to the Behaviorist models of learning. Using the stimulus – Response – Reinforcement model, it attempted, through a continuous process of such positive reinforcement, to engender good habits in language learners. Audio – lingualism relied heavily on drills to form these habits: substitution was built into these drills so that, in small steps, the students was constantly learning and, moreover, was shielded from the possibility of making mistakes by the design of the drill.”

J. Richards and T. S Rodgers (1986:47) said “The combination of structural linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-oral procedures, and behaviorist psychology led to the Audio Lingual Method.”

So, Audio Lingual method is a method that using behaviorist models of learning and helping learners to respond correctly to stimuli through shaping and reinforcement.

i. Characteristics

New vocabulary and structural patterns are presented through dialogs. The dialogs are learned through limitation and repetition. Drills (such as repetition, backward build-up, chain, substation, transformation, and question-answer) are conducted based upon the patterns present in the dialog. Students’ successful responses are positively reinforced. Grammar is induced from the examples given; explicit grammar rules are not provided. Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogs or presented by the teacher. Students’ reading and written work is based upon the oral work they did earlier.

j. Goal
1. Students are able to use the target language communicatively.
2. Students need to over learn the target language.
3. Students learn and use the target language automatically without stopping to think.
4. Students form new habits in the target language and overcoming the old habits of their native language.
5. k. Teacher and Students Role

The teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the language behavior of her students. She is also responsible for providing her students with a good model for imitation. Students are imitators of the teacher’s model or the tapes she supplies of model speaker. They follow the teacher’s direction and respond as accurately and as rapidly as possible.

l. Technique of Presentation
1. Dialog memorization

Dialogs or short conversations between two people are often used to begin a new lesson. Students memorize the dialog through mimicry; students usually take the role of one person in the dialog, and the teacher the other.

Backward build-up (expansion) drill

This drill is used when a long line of a dialog is giving students trouble. The teacher breaks down the line into several parts. The students repeat a part of the sentence, usually the last phrase of the line.

Repetition drill

Students are asked to repeat the teacher’s model as accurately and as quickly as possible. This drill is often used to teach the lines of the dialog.

Chain drill

A chain drill gets its name from the chain of conversation that forms around the room as students, one-by-one, ask and answer questions of each other.

Single-slot substation drill

The teacher says a line, usually from the dialog. Next, the teacher says a word or phrase-called the cue. The students repeat the line the teacher has given them, substituting the cue into the line in its proper place.

Multiple-slot substitution drill

This drill is similar to the single-slot substitution drill. The differences are that the teacher gives cue phrases, one at time, that fit into different slots into the dialog line.

Transformation drill

The teacher gives students a certain kind of sentence pattern, an affirmative sentence for example. Students are asked to transform this sentence into a negative sentence. Other examples of transformation to ask of students are changing a statement into a question, an active sentence into a passive one, direct speech into reported speech.

Question – and – answer drill

This drill gives students practice with answering questions. The students should answer the teacher’s questions very quickly. Although we did not see it in our lesson here, it is also possible for the teacher to cue the students to ask questions as well. This gives students practice with the question pattern.

Use of minimal pairs

The teacher works with pairs of words; which differ in only one sound; for example, ‘ship/sheep’. Students are first asked to perceive the difference between the two words and latter to be able to say the words.

Complete the dialog

Selected words are erased from a dialog students have learned. Students complete the dialog by filling the blanks with the missing words.

Grammar game

Games like the supermarket alphabet game described in this chapter are used in the Audio – Lingual Method. The games are designed to get students to practice a grammar point within a context.

m. Advantages and Disadvantages
1. Advantage

Effective to the beginners
Listening and speaking skills
Vocabulary learning
Quickly communicate

Disadvantage

Make advanced students bored
Limited language environment
Many students in the class

n. Application

As we enter the classroom, the first thing we notice is that the students are attentively listening as the teacher is presenting a new dialog, a conversation between two people. The students know they will be expected to eventually memorize the dialog the teacher is introducing. All of the teacher’s instructions are in English. Sometimes she uses actions to convey meaning, but not one word of the students’ native language is uttered. After she acts out the dialog, she says:

“All right, class. I am going to repeat the dialog now. Listen carefully, but no talking please.

Two people are walking along a sidewalk in town. They know each other, and as they meet, they stop to talk. One of them is named Sally and the other one is named Bill. I will talk for Sally and for Bill. Listen to their conversation:

SALLY Good morning, Bill

BILL Good morning, Sally

SALLY How are you?

BILL Fine, thanks. And you?

SALLY Fine. Where are you going?

BILL I’m going to the post office

SALLY I am too. Shall we go together?

BILL Sure. Let’s go.

Listen one more time. This time try to understand all that I am saying.”

Now she has the whole class repeat each of the lines of the dialog after her model. They repeat each line several times before moving on to the next line. When the class comes to the line, “I’m going to the post office,” they stumble a bit in their repetition. The teacher, at the point, stops the repetition and uses a backward build-up drill (expansion drill). The purpose of this drill is to break down the troublesome sentence into smaller parts. The teacher starts with the end of the sentence and has the class repeat just the last two words. Since they can do this, the teacher adds a few more words, and the class repeats this expanded phrase. Little by little the teacher builds up the phrases until the entire sentence is being repeated.

TEACHER Repeat after me: post office

CLASS Post office

TEACHER To the post office

CLASS To the post office

TEACHER Going to the post office

CLASS Going to the post office

TEACHER I’m going to the post office

CLASS I’m going to the post office

Through this step-by-step procedure, the teacher is able to give the students help in producing the troublesome line. Having worked on the line in small pieces, the students are also able to take note of where each word or phrase begins and ends in the sentence.

After the students have repeated the dialog several times, the teacher gives them a chance to adopt the role of Bill while she says Sally’s line. Before the class actually says each line, the teacher models it. In effect, the class is experiencing a repetition drill where the task is to listen carefully and attempt to mimic the teacher’s model as accurately as possible.

Next the class and the teacher switch roles in order to practice a little more, the teacher saying Bill’s line and the class saying Sally’s line. Then the teacher divides the class in half so that each half gets to try to say on their own either Bill’s or Sally’s line. The teacher stops the students from time to time when she feels they are straying too far from the model, and once again provides a model, which she has them attempt to copy. To further practice the lines of this dialog, the teacher has all the boys in the class take Bill’s part and all the girls take Sally’s.

She then initiates a chain drill with four of the lines from the dialog. A chain drill gives students an opportunity to say the lines individually. The teacher listens and can tell which students use the expressions in communication with someone else, even though the communication is very limited. The teacher addresses the student nearest her with, ‘Good morning, Jose’ He, in turn, responds, ‘Good morning, teacher.’ She says, ‘How are you?’ Jose answers, ‘Fine, thanks. And you?’ The teacher replies, ‘Fine.’ He understands through the teacher’s gestures that he is turn to the student sitting beside him and greet her. That student, in turn, says her lines in reply to him. When she has finished, she greets the student on the other side of her. This chain continues until all of the students have a chance to ask and answer the questions. The last student directs the greeting to the teacher.

Finally, the teacher selects two students to perform the entire dialog for the rest of the class. When they are finished, two others do the same. Not everyone has a chance to say the dialog in a pair today, but perhaps they will sometime this week.

The teacher moves next to the second major phase of the lesson. She continues to drill the students with language from the dialog, but these drills require more than simple repetition. The first drill the teacher leads is a single-slot substitution drill in which the students will repeat a sentence from the dialog and replace a word or phrase in the sentence with the word or phrase the teacher gives them. This word or phrase is called the cue.

The teacher begins by reciting a lie from the dialog, ‘I am going to the post office.’ Following this she shows the students a picture of a bank and says the phrase, ‘The bank.’ She pauses, then says, ‘I am going to the bank.’

From her example the students realize that they are supposed to take the cue phrase (the bank), which the teacher supplies, and put it into its proper place in the sentence.

Now she gives them their first cue phrase, ‘the drugstore.’ Together the students respond, ‘I am going to the drugstore.’ The teacher smiles. ‘Very good!’ she exclaims. The teacher cues, ‘The park.’ The students chorus, ‘I am going to the park.’

Other cues she offers in turn are ‘the café,’ ‘the supermarket,’ ‘the bus station,’ ‘the football field,’ and ‘the library.’ Each cue is accompanied by a picture as before. After the students have gone through the drill sequence three times, the teacher no longer provides a spoken cue phrase. Instead she simply shows the pictures on at a time, and the students repeat the entire sentence, putting the name of the place in the picture in the appropriate slot in the sentence.

A similar procedure is followed for another sentence in the dialog, ‘How are you?’ The subject pronouns ’he,’ ‘she’, ‘they,’ and ‘you,’ are used as cue words. This substitution drill is slightly more difficult for the students since they have to change the form of the verb ‘be’ to ‘is’ or ‘are,’ depending on which subject pronoun the teacher gives them. The students are apparently familiar with the subject pronouns since the teacher is not using any pictures. Instead, after going through the drill a few times supplying oral cues, the teacher points to a boy in the class and the students understand they are to use the pronoun ‘he’ in the sentence. They chorus, ‘How is he?’ ‘Good!’ says the teacher. She points to a girl and waits for the class’ response, then points to other students tom elicit the use of ‘they.’

Finally, the teacher increases the complexity of the task by leading the students in a multiple-slot substitution drill. This is essentially the same type of drill as the single-slot the teacher just used. However with this drill, students must recognize what part of speech the cue word is and where it fits into the sentence. The students still listen to only one cue from the teacher. Then they must take a decision concerning where the cue word or phrase belongs in a sentence also supplied by the teacher. The teacher in the class starts off by having the students repeat the original sentence from the dialog, ‘I am going to the post office.’ Then she gives them the cue ‘she.’ The students understand and produce, ‘She is going to the post office.’ The next cue the teacher offers is ‘to the park.’ The students hesitate at first; then they respond by correctly producing, ‘She is going to the park.’ She continuous in this manner, sometimes providing a subject pronoun, other times naming a location.

The substitution drills are followed by a transformation drill. This type of drill asks students to change one type of sentence into another – an affirmative sentence into a negative or an active sentence into a passive, for example. In this class, the teacher uses a substitution drill that requires the students to change a statement into a yes/no question. The teacher offers an example, ‘I say, “She is going to the post office.” You make a question by saying, “Is she going to the post office?”’

The teacher models two more examples of this transformation, then asks, ‘Does everyone understand? OK, let’s begin. “They are going to the bank.”’ The class replies in turn, ‘Are they going to the bank?’ They transform approximately fifteen of these patterns, and then the teacher decides they are ready to move on to a question – and – answer drill.

The teacher holds up one of the pictures she used earlier, the picture of a football field, and asks the class, ‘Are you going to the football field.’ She poses the next question while holding up a picture of a park, ‘Are you going to the park?’ And again answers herself, ‘Yes, I’m going to the park.’ She holds up a third picture, the one of a library. She poses a question to the class, ‘Are you going to the library?’ They respond together, ‘Yes, I am going to the library.’

‘Very good,’ the teacher says. Through her actions and examples, the students have learned that they are to answer the questions following the pattern she has modeled. The teacher drills them with this pattern for the next few minutes. Since the students can handle it, she poses the question to selected individuals rapidly, one after another. The students are expected to respond very quickly, without pausing.

The students are able to keep up the pace, so the teacher moves on to the next step. She again shows the class one of the pictures, a supermarket this time. She asks, ‘Are you going to the bus station?’ She answers her own question, ‘No, I am going to the supermarket.’

The students understand that they are required to look at the picture and listen to the question and answer negatively if the place in the question is not the same as what they see in the picture. ‘Are you going to the bus station?’ The teacher asks while holding up a picture of a café. ‘No, I am going to the café,’ the class answers.

‘Very good!’ exclaims the teacher. After posting s few more questions which require negative answers, the teacher produces the pictures of the post office and asks, ‘Are you going to the post office?’ The students hesitate a moment and then chorus, “Yes, I am going to the post office.’

‘Good’, comments the teacher. She works a little longer on this question and answer drill, sometimes providing her students with situations that require a negative answer and sometimes encouragement to each student. She holds up pictures and poses questions one right after another, but the students seem to have no trouble keeping up with her. The only time she changes the rhythm is when a student seriously mispronounces a word. When this occurs she restates the word and works briefly with the student until his pronunciation is closer to her own.

For the final few minutes of the class, the teacher returns to the dialog with which she began the lesson. She repeats it once, then has the half of the class to her left do Bill’s lines and the half of the class to her right do Sally’s. This time there is no hesitation at all. The students move through the dialog briskly. They trade roles and do the same. The teacher smiles, ’Very good. Class dismissed.’

The lesson ends for the day. Both the teacher and the students have worked hard. The students have listened to and spoken only English for the period. The teacher is tired from all her action, but she is pleased for she feels the lesson has gone well. The students have learned the lines of the dialog and to respond without hesitation to her cues in the drill pattern.

VIII. Silent Way
a. Definition

According to Jack C. Richards and Theodore Stephen Rodgers in Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, silent way is a method of language teaching based on the premise that the teacher should be as silent as much as possible in the classroom but the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible.
From the book A Kaleidoscope of Models and Strategies for Teaching English to Speakers of Other languages by Deborah L. Norland and Terry Pruett-Said, the silent way, developed in the 1960s by Caleb Gattegno is grounded in the belief that students should learn independently of the teacher.

So, the silent way is a method of language teaching in which the teacher should be as silent as possible and the students learn independently so that they can use language to express their idea and thought.

b. Characteristics
Respect for the students’ capacity to work out language problems and recall information on their own
Self-correction and peer-correction are emphasized
Teachers can help more frequently and more effectively if they stop interfering.
Repetition consumes time and encourages the scattered mind to remain scattered
Type of interaction: student-student verbal interaction is desired and encouraged. The teacher’s silence is one way to achieve this.
Students’ native language: native language can be used to give instructions when necessary.
Evaluation: although the teacher does not have to give a formal test, One criterion of whether or not students have learned is their ability to transfer what they have been studying to new contexts.
The characteristics of teaching process: The teacher sets up situations that focus on the structures of the language. These are introduced through a language-specific sound-color chart.
The characteristics of learning process: Students begin their study of the language through its sounds. The students receive a great deal of practice with a given target language structure without repetition for its own sake.

c. Goal
Students are able to use the language for self-expression.
Students need to develop independence from the teacher, to develop their own criteria for correctness.
Students become independent by relying on themselves.
1. The teacher should give them only what they absolutely need to promote their learning.
2. d. Teacher and Students Role
3. 1. Teacher Role

The role of the teacher is that of technician or engineer. The teacher’s task is to focus the students’ attention, and provide exercises to help them develop language facility; however, to ensure their self-reliance, the teacher should only help the students as much as is strictly necessary. Teachers also avoid praise or criticism, as it can discourage students from developing self-reliance.

The teacher is responsible for creating an environment that encourages student risk taking and that facilitates learning. The teacher’s role is one of neutral observer, neither elated by correct performance nor discouraged by error.

2. Students Role

The role of the students is to make use of what they know, to free themselves of any obstacles that would interfere with giving their utmost to the learning task, and to actively engage in exploring the language.

They are expected to interact with each other and suggest alternatives to each other. Students have only themselves as individuals and the group to rely on, and so must learn to work cooperatively rather than competitively. They need to feel comfortable both correcting each other and being corrected by each other.

In order to be productive members of the learning group, sudents thus have to play varying roles. At times one is an independent individual, at other times a group member. A student also must be a teacher, a student, part of a support system, a problem solver, and a self-evaluator. And it is the student who is usually expected to decide on what role is most appropriate to a given situation.

e. Technique of Presentation
1. 1. Teacher’s silence

Just as the name implies, silence is a key tool of the teacher in the Silent Way. From the beginning levels, students do 90 percent or more of the talking. Being silent moves the focus of the classroom from the teacher to the students, and can encourage cooperation among them. It also frees the teacher to observe the class. Silence can be used to help students correct their own errors. Teachers can remain silent when a student makes a mistake to give them time to self-correct;

2. Peer Correction

A Silent Way classroom also makes extensive use of peer correction. Students are encouraged to help their classmates when they have trouble with any particular feature of the language. This help should be made in a cooperative fashion, not a competitive one. One of the teacher’s tasks is to monitor these interactions, so that they are helpful and do not interfere with students’ learning.

3. Self-correction Gestures

The teacher can also help students with their pronunciation by mouthing words without vocalizing, and by using certain hand gestures. When teachers do speak, they tend to say things only once so that students learn to focus their attention on them.

Below are a few examples of specific techniques that can aid foreign-language students in monitoring their own speech.

Silent-Way Finger/Hand Techniques for Self-Correction

Fingers Representing Words: an easy way to zero in on one word that needs changing.

Twisting Two Fingers: indicates that the word order must be inverted.

Scissors Gesture: tells the students to cut off the last part of a word or phrase.

Silent-Way Self-Correction Techniques for Written Work

Mark Homework: use simple symbols to indicate bad spelling, a missing word, etc.

Group Correction: before the students arrive, rewrite some of their incorrect sentences (taken from homework) on handouts or on the board. Have the whole group analyze each sentence, trying to find the mistakes.

Silent-Way Oral Techniques for Self-Correction

The Grunt: the teacher repeats what the student just said, but replaces the word(s) that need correction with a grunt or hum.

Humming to Indicate Stress: this can be used to indicate which words must be stressed in a phrase or where the accent falls in an individual word.

4. Structured Feedback

Teacher asks the feedback from the students at the end of class. He also asks the students how the today’s lesson. It can help the teacher to make a plan for te next lesson.

5. Word Chart

It contains the functional vocabulary of the target language.

6. Sound Chart

It consists of blocks of color, with one color representing one sound in the language being learned.

7. Fidel Chart

It is a list the various ways that sounds can be spelled.

Cuisinaire Rods for story telling and vocabulary

They arebeam or log wooden , and come in ten different lengths, but identical cross-section; each length has its own assigned color

f. Advantages and Disadvantages
1. 1. Advantages

Students interact not only with teachers but also with each other.
The teacher has free time to observe students carefully.
The teacher views and gives students some hints and help to correct their errors.

Disadvantages

For some teachers the rigidity of the system (no repetitions by the teacher, no answers by the teacher etc.) may be meaningless.
Language is separated from its social context and taught through artificial situations usually by rods.
Students waste too much time to understand the concept by the teacher’s direct guide.
Students may be confused with the symbols of the colored wooden rods.

g. Application

In Indonesia, the silent way is rarely used because it is not known well. Teachers tend to use grammar translation method and audio-lingual in any education level. In Indonesia, teacher is the authority in the classroom, and students tend to be passive. That’s why silent way which require student’s activity in speaking and thinking is difficult to be applied in Indonesia.

This method should be widely introduced to the teachers in Indonesia so that they can use and develop this method, because it may improve the quality of education in Indonesia.

IX. Desuggestopedia
a. Definition

There are some definition of desuggestopedia, they are:

Desuggestopedia is an approach to education whose primary objective is to tap the extraordinary reserve capacities we all possess but rarely if ever use.
Desuggestepedia is a method that helps you to tap into the mental capacities.
Desuggestopedia is the application of the study of suggestion to pedagogy.

This method utilises techniques from many sources of research into how best we can learn. The Bulgarian scientist, Dr. Georgi Lozanov, for example, has demonstrated that through a carefully “orchestrated” learning environment including most importantly a specially-trained teacher, the learning process can be accelerated by a factor of three to ten times enjoyably. Such results are possible through the proper use of suggestion.

“The suggestive-desuggestive process allows students to go beyond previously held beliefs and self-limiting concepts concerning the learning process and learn great quantities of material with ease and enjoyment.”

b. Characteristics

Characteristics of Teaching and Learning Process

Bright and ceerful classroom
Students’ new identity
No test and no assignment
Conversation with translation in music—to activate the’whole brain’ of the students.

Nature of Student-teacher and Student-student Interaction

The teacher initiates interaction in two ways:

The teacher to a group of students
The teacher to only one student

The students respond through:

Nonverbal actions
A few target language

Student- student interaction : role play

Feeling of The Students

A great deal of attention is given to students feelings in this method. One of fundamental principles on the method is that if students are relaxed and confident, they will not need to try hard to learn the language. It will just come naturally and easily.

How Language and Culture are Viewed

Language itself is the first of two planes in the two-plane process of communication.
Nonverbal factors also influence the linguistic message.
The use of the fine arts is important in Desuggestopedia classes.

Areas of Language and Skills Which are Emphasized

Vocabulary is emphasized.
Grammar is dealt with explicitly but minimally.
Speaking communicatively is emphasized.

Role of Students’ Native Language

The role of the students native language is native language translation is used to make the meaning oh the dialog clear. As the course proceeds, the teacher uses the native language less and less.

Evaluation

Evaluation usually is conducted on students’ normal in-class performance, not through tests, which would threaten the relaxed atmosphere considered essential for accelerated learning.

Students’ Error

Errors are corrected gently, with the teacher using a soft voice.

c. Goal

The goal of the teachers who use Desuggestopedia is teachers hope to accelerate the process by which students learn to use a foreign language for everyday communication. In order to do this, more of the students’ mental power must be tapped.

This is accomplished by desuggesting the psychological barriers learners bring with them to the learning situation and using techniques to activate the “para-conscious” part of the mind, just below “fully-conscious” mind

d. Teacher and Students Role

Role of The Teacher

1. Authority – being confident and trustable
2. Security – affording a cheerful classroom atmosphere

The students will retain information better from someone in whom they have confidence since they will more responsive to the one ‘desuggesting’ their limitations and suggesting how easy it will be for them to success.

Role of The students

Relexed – following the teacher’s instruction easily.
Role play – enjoying in the new identity freely.
e. Technique of Presentation
1. 1. Classroom set-up

The challenge of the teacher is to create a classroom environment which is bright and cheerful. This was accomplished in the classroom where the walls were decorated with scenes from a country where the target language is spoken. These conditions are not always possible. However, the teacher should try to provide as positive an environment as possible.

2. Peripheral learning

This technique is based upon the idea that we perceive much more in our environment than that to which we consciously attend. It is claimed that, by putting posters containing grammatical information about the target language on the classroom’s walls, students will absorb the necessary facts effortlessly. The teacher may or may not call attention to the posters. They are appropriate to what the students are studying.

3. Positive suggestion

It is the teacher’s responsibility to orchestrate the suggestive factors in a learning situation, thereby helping students break down the barriers to learning that they bring with them. Teachers can do this through direct and indirect means. Direct suggestion appeals to the students’ consciousness: a teacher tells students they are going to be successful. But indirect suggestion, which appeals to the students’ subconscious, is actually the more powerful of the two. For example, indirect suggestion was accomplished in the class we visited through the choice of a dialog entitled. ‘to want is to be able to’

4. Choose a new identity

The students choose a target language name and a new occupation. As the course continues, the students have an opportunity to develop a whole biography about their fictional selves. For instance, later on they may be asked to talk or write about their fictional hometown, childhood, and family.

5. Role play

Students are asked to pretend temporarily that they are someone else and to perform in the target language as if they were that person. they are often asked to create their own lines relevant to the situation.

6. First concert (active concert)

After the teacher has introduced the story as related in the dialog and has called students’ attention to some particulars grammatical points that arise in it, she reads the dialog in the target language. The students have copies of the dialog in the target language and their native language and refer to it as the teacher is reading.

Music is played. After a few minutes, the teacher begins at slow, dramatic reading, synchronized in intonation with the music. The music is classical; the early Romantic period is suggested. The teacher’s voice rises and falls with the music.

Second concert (passive concert)

In the second phase, the students are asked to put their script aside. They simply listen as the teacher reads the dialog at a normal rate of speed. The teacher is seated and reads with the musical accompaniment. The content governs the way teacher reads the script, not the music, which is pre-Classical or Baroque. At the conclusion of this concert, the class ends for the day.

Primary activation

This technique and the one that follows are components of the active phase of the lesson. The students playfully reread the target language dialog out loud, as individuals or in groups. In the lesson we observed, three groups of students read parts of the dialog in a particular manner; the 1st group sadly; the next, angrily; the last, cheerfully.

9. Creative adaptation

The students engage in various activities designed to help them learn the new material and use it spontaneously. Activities particularly recommended for this phase include singing, dancing, dramatizations, and games. The important thing is that the activities are varied and do not allow the students to focus on the form of linguistic message, just the communicative intent.

f. Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

Students are relaxed and comfortable in their learning activities because the learning process is made as enjoyable as possible. It supports them to have a better understanding than if they do not enjoy the activities lead by the teacher.

Disadvantages

This method depends on the students’ mindset, so if they cannot bring themselves to the situation made by the teacher, this approach will not work well. For some students who do not like the type of music given, they will probably getting bored with the activities.

g. Application
1. 1. The receptive phase :

a) The first concert (the active concert): The teacher reads the dialog, matching his voice to the rhythm and pitch of the music. In this way, the ‘whole brain’ (both the left and the right hemispheres) of the students become activated. The students follow the target language dialog as the teacher reads it out loud. They also check the translation.

b) The second concert (the passive concert): The students listen calmly while the teacher reads the dialog at a normal rate of speed.

2. The activation phase:

Students engage in various activities designed to help them gain facility with the new material.

a) Primary activation: The students playfully reread the target language dialog out loud, as individuals or in groups.

b) Creative adaptation: The students engage in various activities designed to help them learn the new material and use it spontaneously. Activities particularly recommended for this phase include singing, dancing, dramatizations, and games. The activities are varied and do not allow the students to focus on the form of the linguistic message, just the communicative intent.

X. Suggestopedia
1. a. Definition

Suggestopedia is a teaching method which is based on a modern understanding of how the human brain works and how we learn most effectively. It was developed by the Bulgarian doctor and psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov . Suggestopedia derived from the word “suggestion and pedagogy”. The originator of this method, Georgi Luzanov, believes that as the people get older, inhibit their learning to conform to the social norms and in order to reactivate the capabilities they used as children, teachers have to use the power of suggestion. The suggestopedic approach is said to increase enormously the ability of students to learn, to remember, and to integrate what they learn into their personality.

Based on Diane Freeman’s study of language teaching methods.Suggestopedia is a study that desuggests the limitations that learners have to help them to believe that they could be successful in learning. This will help the learners to overcome the barriers to learning. This study is done so because generally, learners would not be able to believe that they will succeed in gaining the knowledge, which contribute development of high limitations towards learning.

It is believed that learning are done in two sets of planes, one is the linguistic message of the narrator, while the second one is the complimentary to the message, such as the background music played and the acting of the teacher.

Classrooms are memorization of the words and patterns of the language and their integration into the students’ personalities. Suggestopedia was designed primarily to make these two processes more effective. The supporters of suggestopedia claimed that memorisation in learning through this approach would be accelerated by up to 25 times over that in conventional learning methods.

b. Characteristics

The main characteristics of Suggestopedia are the decoration, furniture, and arrangement of the classroom, the use of music, and the authoritative behavior of the teacher. One of the characteristics of this method is the use of music during learning process. Suggestopedia uses baroque music pieces in the second or “passive” concert session. However it never uses a “slow baroque” or a music piece written as “adagio”. It is simply because Suggestopedia does not want students to fall asleep in the concert session. Rather, it uses faster and livelier pieces to stimulate a whole brain.

In the first or “active” concert session, it uses even more lively pieces of classical music. The music list includes a quite dramatic piece such as Beethoven’s piano concerto No.5.

While the music playing, the teacher reading the story text to the accompaniment of emotional classical music. The students follow along in their text, underlining, highlighting, or making notes as they wish. This is we called as active concert. Thus the students have a translation of the text. This translation is collected after the concert session and the students work without it. Here we have the suggestion that since I can work in the class without the translation, I must have learned the text. During the passive concert, after the active session, the students close their eyes and listen to the teacher who reads more or less normally to the accompaniment of philosophic classical music.

Other characteristic of this method are the giving over of complete control and authority to the teacher, because the teacher’s attitude and behaviour in the classroom is one of the key elements which ensures the success of a suggestopedic session. He or she has to establish good human relations in the class so that students would help and praise one another.

c. Goal

The purpose of Suggestopedia method is to tap into more students’ mental potential to learn, in order to accelerate the process by which they learn to understand and use the target language for communication. The students must be relax and send their brain to alpha state. Left and right brain integration will be enhanced through the power of suggestion, music, relaxation, deep breathing, metaphors and guided imagery.

d. Teacher and Students Role

Teachers should not act directive although this method is teacher-controlled. For example, they should act as a real partner to the students, participating in the activities such as games and songs “naturally” and “genuinely.” In the concert session, they should fully include classical art into their behaviors. Although there are many techniques that the teachers use, the factors such as “communication in the spirit of love, respect for man as a human being, the specific humanitarian way of applying there ‘techniques’” etc. are crucial. The teachers need not only to know the techniques and theoretical information but also to understand the theory and to acquire the practical methodology completely because if they implement those techniques without complete understandings and acquisition, they could not provide learners successful results, or even could give a negative impact on their learning. Therefore the teacher has to be trained in the course that is taught by the certified trainers.

Here are the most important factors for teachers to acquire, described by Lozanov.

1. Covering a huge bulk of learning material.

2. Structuring the material in the suggestopaedic way; global-partial – partial-global, and global in the part – part in the global, related to the golden proportion.

3. As a professional, on one hand, and a personality, on the other hand, the teacher should be highly prestigious, reliable and credible.

4. The teacher should have, not play, a hundred percent of expectancy in positive results (because the teacher is already experienced even from the time of teacher training course).

5. The teacher should love his/her students (of course, not sentimentally but as human beings) and teach them with personal participation through games, songs, a classical type of arts and pleasure.

6. There are a few teachers and trainers all over the world who are certified in the newest development of Suggestopedia – Desuggestopedia. In Brazil there is one teacher certified by Dr. Lozanov – Paulo Negrete (http://www.lozanov.com.br), in the US – Lupe Escamila (http://www.parsomni.com) and a few others in Europe and one in Japan and Australia.

e. Technique of Presentation

There are four main stages of Suggestopedia :

Presentation :

A preparatory stage in which students are helped to relax and move into a positive frame of mind, with the feeling that the learning is going to be easy and fun.

First concert-”active concert” :

This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. For example, in a foreign language course there might be the dramatic reading of a piece of text, accompanied by classical music.

Second concert – “ passive review” :

The students are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque music, with the text being read very quietly in the background. The music is specially selected to bring the students into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of the material.

Practice :

The use of a range of games, puzzles, etc to review and consolidate the learning

f. Advantages and Disadvantages
1. The advantages of this method are:

Could activate both left and right students’ brain because of the classical music
Could reduce the students’ fear to learn the targetlanguage
The use of music both as an accompaniment to certain activities can be motivating and relaxing the students.
This method uses the conscious and subconscious. This combination will make the learning become optimal.

The disadvantages of this method are:

It’s difficult to provide large comfortable chairs, dim lighting, and music because they are not readily available in the majority of schools.
The creativity and initiative of the students is less increase because the learning process is authorized by the teacher.

g. Application

Teacher and students are in the class which is in a dim lighting condition, quiet, and comfortable. The chairs are well arranged or have enough space between each other. The teacher plays the classical music to accompany him/her in delivering the material.

First Concert – “Active Concert”
This involves the active presentation of the material to be learnt. For example, in a foreign language course there might be the dramatic reading of a piece of text, accompanied by classical music.
Second Concert – “Passive Review”
The students are now invited to relax and listen to some Baroque music, with the text being read very quietly in the background. The music is specially selected to bring the students into the optimum mental state for the effortless acquisition of the material.

XI. Community Language Learning
1. h. Definition

Community Language Learning (CLL) is the name of a method developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates. Curran was a specialist in counseling and a professor of psychology at Loyola University, Chicago. His application of psychological counseling techniques to learning is known as Counseling-Learning. Community Language Learning represents the use of Counseling-Learning theory to teach languages.

(Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, By Jack C. Richards)

It means that Community Language Learning is a method which teach the students how to use the target language communicatively by using the Counseling-Learning theory so that the teacher will be able to reduce students’ anxiety

i. Characteristics

In a beginning class the teacher tells the students what they are going to learn. The s/he explains the procedure. The students arrange their chairs into round. In the middle of the class there is a tape recorder. The teacher asked them to have a conversation in the target language. The teacher helps the students. s/he will help them translating words from their native language to the target language. Later, a transcript is made of the conversation. The teacher can use the transcription to examine the grammar, pronunciation or creating new sentences with the words on the transcript.

In the CLL class there are no pattern-practice drills, which are teacher-centered. The experience of CLL is “framed” by a time limit, so the students can accept it without anxiety.

Six non-defensive learning

Security

Non-threatening learning environment

Aggression

Actively involved in the learning experience

Attention

Ability to attend to many factors simultaneously by narrowing the scope of attention initially

Reflection

When Students reflect on the language as the teacher reads the transcript three times; when Students are invited to stop and consider the active experience they have

Retention

The integration of the new material that takes place within the whole self

Discrimination

Sorting out differences among target language forms such as Human Computer

j. Goal

The goal of this method is that the students can learn how to use the target language communicatively. In addition to this, this method wants the students to learn about their own learning, to take increasing responsibility for it and to learn how to learn from one another.

k. Teacher and Students Role

Role of the teacher

Teacher is being the counselor. It means that the teacher understands and supports his students in their struggle to master the target language.

Role of the students

From dependent to be independent. Usually learners are very dependent upon their teacher but as the learners continue to study, they become increasingly independent.

l. Technique of Presentation

Tape recording

This is used to record student-generated language. Students are in good position to take responsibility for their own learning. Since they know what they wanted to say in their native language, it’s easier for them to associate meaning of the target language from the recording.

Transcription

The teacher transcribes the conversation and the students translate it.

Reflection on experience

The teacher gives opportunity to the students to reflect on how they feel about the language learning experience. When a student response, the teacher shows that s/he listened carefully.

Reflective listening

The students listen to the recording. The students read the transcription while listening to the recording. The students repeat after the teacher.

Human computer

A student chooses some part of the transcription to pronouncing. The teacher repeats the phrase as often as the student wants. The teacher doesn’t correct the student’s mispronunciation. The student will correct her/himself through the teacher’s repetition.

Small group tasks

The students -in a group- are asked to make new sentences using the new words on the transcript. Then later they can share their new sentences to the rest of the class.

m. Advantages and Disadvantages
1. 1. Advantages

Change the dependable students to be the independent students

At first, students are very dependable on the teacher’s translation, but over time they are move towards independence.

They are not limited in their topics of conversation

Learners are free to talk about the affairs of daily life.

Induce a grammar far more complex

From the teacher’s translation, learners will be able to induce a grammar far more complex than they are able to use on their own.

2. Disadvantages

The counselor-teacher can become too non-directive

The student often needs direction, especially in the first stage, in which there is such seemingly endless struggle within the foreign language.

Can be benefited from directive deductive learning

The students were being told by the teacher.

n. Application

This method is suitable for the primary learners because this method teach the students how to use the target language communicatively. The term “use” means that the learners had already have some supportive vocabularies so that they can use those vocabularies to communicate with each other.

XII. Total Physical Response (TPR)
1. h. Definition

The Total Physical Response (TPR) method as one that combines information and skills through the use of the kinesthetic sensory system. This combination of skills allows the student to assimilate information and skills at a rapid rate. As a result, this success leads to a high degree of motivation (James J. Asher, Learning Another Language Through Actions. San Jose, California: AccuPrint, 1979)
- A language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action; it attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity ( Richard J, Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching)

i. Characteristics

1) The goals are to provide an enjoyable learning experience, having a minimum of the stress that typically accompanies learning a foreign language.

2) The teacher gives commands and students follow them. Once students are ready to speak, they take on directing roles.

3) Lessons begin with commands by the teacher and students demonstrate their understanding by acting these out. Teachers recombine their instructions in novel and often humorous ways, and eventually students follow suit. Activities later include games and skits.

4) The method was developed principally to reduce the stress associated with language learning. Students are not forced to speak before they are ready and learning is made as enjoyable as possible, stimulating feelings of success and low anxiety.

5) Oral modality is primary and culture is the lifestyle of native speakers of the target language.

6) Grammatical structures and vocabulary are emphasized, imbedded in imperatives. Understanding precedes production. Spoken language precedes the written words.

7) Method is introduced in students’ native language, but rarely used later in course. Meaning is made clear through actions.

8) Teachers can evaluate students through simple observation of their actions. Formal evaluation is achieved by commanding a student to perform a series of actions.

9) Students are expected to make errors once they begin speaking. Teachers only correct major errors and do this unobtrusively. Fine turning occurs later.

According to Richards and Rodgers (1986), the principles of the Total Physics Response (TPR) are:

Comprehension abilities precede productive skills in learning language.
The teaching of speaking should be delayed until comprehension skill are established.
Skills acquired through listening transfer ti other skills.
Teaching should emphasized meaning rather than form.
Teaching should minimize learner stress.
j. Goal

The main goal of this method is to provide an enjoyable learning experience, having a minimum stress that typically accompanies learning a foreign language.

k. Teacher and Students Role

Teacher as the instructor has active role and directly applied this method. According to Asher “”The instructor is the director of a stage play in which the students are the actors”. Teacher decided what material that will be thought, and who will be the actor.

Students in this method have role as actor and listeners. Students listen carefully and then they will give physics response based on the teacher commands individually or in a group.

l. Technique of Presentation
Practice using commands (Imperative Drill) is the main activities that teacher do in the class room from using TPR method. Practice is useful to get body movement and activities from the students.
Conversational dialogue
Role Play can be centered to the dialy activities such as in the school, restaurant, market, etc.
Presentation
Reading and writing to gain more vocabularies, and also practice to learn the structure of the sentences.
1. m. Advantages and Disadvantages
2. 1. Advantages

This method is very easy and fun from the usage of language side and furthermore it also provides body language and games so that can reduce students’ stress.
The lesson difficulties that students face will be easier because while study through games and body movement.
The students will enjoy the class room activities, and they will mastering the material without pressure.
Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher.
TPR is inclusive and works well a class with mixed ability levels.
Good for kinesthetic learners who need to be active in class.
Good tool for building vocabulary.
Actions help build connections in the brain.
Helps learners achieve fluency faster by immersing learners in activities that involve them in situational language use.
Good instructional practice for ESL’s in their silent period.
Works well for child and adult learners.

2. Disadvantages

Most useful for beginners.
Preparation becomes an issue for teachers at higher levels.
Students are not generally given the opportunity to express their own thought in as creative manner.
It is easy to over use TPR and begin to bore students.
May limit teachers in term of scope of language that can be addressed.
Can be a major challenge for shy students.

n. Application

Step I The teacher says the commands as he himself performs the action.
Step 2 The teacher says the command as both the teacher and the students then perform the action.
Step 3 The teacher says the command but only students perform the action
Step 4 The teacher tells one student at a time to do commands
Step 5 The roles of teacher and student are reversed. Students give commands to teacher and to other students.
Step 6 The teacher and student allow for command expansion or produces new sentences.

XIII. Communicative Language Teaching
1. h. Definition
2. Communicative language teaching aim broadly to apply theoretical perspective of the communication by making communicative competence the goal of language teaching and by acknowledging the interdependence of language communication. (Diane Larsen-Freeman in Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching).
3. Communicative language teaching can be understood as a set of principles about the goals of language teaching, how learners learn a language, the kinds of classroom activities that best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers and learners in the classroom. (Jack C. Richard in Communicative Language Teaching Today)
4. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) originated from the changes in the British Situational Language Teaching approach dating from the late 1960s (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Stemming from the socio-cognitive perspective of the socio-linguistic theory, with an emphasis on meaning and communication, and a goal to develop learners’ “communicative competence”, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach evolves as a prominent language teaching method and gradually replaced the previous grammar-translation method and audio-lingual method (Warschauer & Kern, 2000).
5. Communicative means willing to talk to people and give them information. Language means a system of communication consisting of sounds, words and grammar, or the system of communication used by the people of a particular country or profession. Teaching means give someone knowledge or to train someone.

For the conclusion, communicative language teaching means a set of principles about the goals of language teaching, how learners learn a language by acknowledging the interdependence of language communication, approach evolves as a prominent language teaching method and gradually replaced the previous grammar-translation method and audio-lingual method.

i. Characteristics

Characteristic of CLT are everything is done by communicative intent.
An information gaps exist when one person in an exchange knows something the other person doesn’t.
The speaker has a choice of what she will say and how she will say it.
The communication is purposeful. Speaker can thus evaluate whether or not his purpose has been achieved based upon the information she receives from his listener.
Then it use authentic materials that can lead students to develop strategies for understanding language as it is usually used. In the activities, students are always doing it in a small group.
The activities in CLT are often carried out by students in small groups.

The others Characteristic of this Method:

The nature of the teacher is as the facilitators of the activities and as a co-communicator between the students in fluency. The students nature is interact with other in pairs, small group and whole group.
The area that is emphasized is speaking because in here, students all over practicing something orally. Skills that are emphasized is writing and speaking. In speaking we have to know the coherence of our sentence to make others understood what we mean.
In evaluation, teacher is not only evaluates students accuracy but also the most important thing is to evaluate the students’ fluency in speaking.
In responding the students’ error, teacher just notes the students’ errors and then shares it in the accuracy activities based, not during the practice activity.

j. Goal

The goal of Communication Language teaching as one of techniques in teaching is to enable students to communicate in the target language.

k. Teacher and Students Role

The role of teacher in CLT is facilitates communication in the classroom. During the activities teacher acts as an adviser, who answering students’ questions and monitoring their performance. At other times he might be a communicator engaging in the communicative activity along with students.

The role of students is as communicators. They are actively interacting in negotiating meaning and trying to themselves understood and in understanding others.

l. Technique of Presentation
Authentic materials

It means that in giving lesson, teacher use the real material such as news in the newspaper and also give homework in listen to a live radio or television broadcast. It is used to expose students to natural language in a variety of situations.

Scramble Sentences

The students are given a text that they have never seen before in which the sentences are in a scrambled order. The purpose is to make students exercise in making cohesion and coherence properties of language with their original order.

Language games

Morrow’s three features communicative activities in the card game:

The speaker had a choice as what and how she would predict,
The speaker received feedback from the members of group
If the prediction was incomprehensible, then none of the members of her group would respond.
If she got a meaningful response, she could presume her prediction was understood.

Picture strip story

It will give students practice in negotiating meaning. The using of picture strip story is to predict what possibility in next pictures.

Role play

It is very important in CLT because it gives students an opportunity to practice communicating in different social contexts and in different social roles. In role plays, students are also have more in choice what will they say.

m. Advantages and Disadvantages
1. Advantages

There are some advantages of using the communicative language teaching approach. Firstly, it allows learners to use the target language in meaningful contexts, thus bringing the real world into the classroom. Even at the Beginner level students want to learn English to communicate with people in their community. They want to be able to make an appointment with their GP in person or on the phone, give reasons for ailments, speak to their children’s teachers, asked for information or advice and to be able to speak with people in the community.

A second advantage is that this approach can be adapted to any level ranging from Pre-Beginner to Advanced and is suitable for classes comprising students with different linguistic backgrounds and varying levels of communicative competence, thus allowing learners to interact with each according to their level of proficiency.

A third advantage is that the CLT approach enables the teacher to step back and take on the role of ‘facilitator’. The teacher is able to observe individual learning through various tasks and is able to determine and respond to student’s needs.

2. Disadvantages:

CLT does not focus on error correction. This is a disadvantage as learners are forced to practice with classmates who are not fluent in English. They do not like talking with students who make mistakes. They want to learn to say things correctly and be corrected by the teacher whenever they make an error. They find it frustrating to ‘chat’ with learners from different countries because they find their accent, pronunciation and speech unintelligible.

These students cannot see the value of CLT, become de-motivated and are often reluctant to participate in activities. Yet when these same students are given a role- play situation which relates to a meaningful context, they struggle because they cannot do it.

Another disadvantage is that the CLT approach focuses on fluency but not accuracy. The approach does not focus on error reduction but instead creates a situation where learners are left using their own devices to solve their communication problems. Thus they may produce incoherent, grammatically incorrect sentences.

n. Application

Communicative Language Teaching has been applied to English teaching in both China and Taiwan since the 1970s. However, several factors constrained the application of such a method in both places. Confucianism has been considered as among the cultural and academic factors that leads to standard entrance examination and authoritative way of teaching and constrains the application of Communicative Language Teaching as well as democratic way of teaching in both China and Taiwan.

Population is a factor constraining CLT because it is quite common that there are fifty to sixty students in an English classroom in China and the class size constrains the effects of CLT activities and degrades the quality of teaching. Even though such methods as group discussion, pair work and language labs might help resolve some of the problems appearing in a large class, population factors keep on threatening the teaching quality of language education.

Before the educational reform in Taiwan began in the early 1990s, an English language teacher in Taiwan might have chances to shape students’ attitudes toward democracy, but what I consider the problems of education in Taiwan kept on challenging such influences. A teacher in Taiwan usually confronted the following problems: (1) authoritative ways of teaching dominated most fields of teaching at schools in Taiwan, (2) standard entrance examinations for students to enter schools beyond the level of junior high confined the curriculum development of most fields of teaching, including that of English language teaching, (3) educational policy making followed the needs of potential military operations, offensive or defensive (Bullard 1997), and deterred the democratic development in Taiwan.

It would be interesting to understand what would actually happen to CLT and English language teaching in both China and Taiwan in the future. The result of further research about the establishment of a critical pedagogy of English teaching, the development of democratic way of teaching and the interrelationship of such a pedagogy and democratic way of teaching in both Taiwan and China might help understand the future development of English teaching as well as the roles English teachers are going to play in both Taiwan and China. The exchanges of the English teaching experiences in both Taiwan and China might also help promote more successful English teaching in the future.

Like other reform efforts in the world, the emergence of “Communicative Language Teaching” in public discourse and, later on, the institution of the “Communicative English Teaching Approach” in Indonesia’s schools represent a response to our disappointments with the theories coming before. Even the term “communicative approach” itself, in the context of English Curriculum for SLTP (Middle School) and SMU (Senior High School), has taken on different social meanings. First, in the 1984 English syllabus, the communicative approach was “misinterpreted” and its implementation aroused controversy. The same approach has now been redefined and renamed the “Meaningful Approach” (Huda, 1999).

As many Indonesian teachers of English can attest, the enabling condition of a supportive language environment is not always easy to create in our schools. There are many reasons for this. One is the teacher’s degree of confidence in using the language in front of his/her students. A second reason might be the time constraints, which practically preclude the teacher designing a lesson that requires learners to get involved in social communication in the classroom. Another reason could be the type and focus of the exam, upon which a student’s relative success in learning English is judged.

Other hindrances might be the absence of good, authentic learning materials, teachers’ tendency to rely on non-communicatively engaging learning tasks (such as grammar-based worksheets), and the absence of visible social uses of the language outside the classroom confines.

Given the reality of Indonesian classes, the most serious challenges facing our English teachers include the issue of exposure to real-life English use, student engagement in real-life communicative activities, and all kinds of environmental supports which, according to research, contribute to the development of learners as communicatively competent users of English for communicative purposes. These non existent supports include communicatively oriented exit exams, realistic behavioral models of how English is used to satisfy the needs for real-life communication and social interactions, and communication-based instructional materials. As indicated earlier, the assessment tests-which are run nationally-focus on knowledge of syntax and grammar, although many teachers and curriculum developers have realized that this practice is counterproductive to the attempt to develop communicative competence. This national policy seems to have been adopted because some decision-makers wrongly believed that communicatively oriented testing instruments are difficult and expensive to develop. The absence of communicatively designed testing, coupled with the fact that the English language is not used in Indonesia’s day-to-day social communication, has resulted in communication based instructional material losing its pedagogical value.

Consistent with this observation, many Indonesian teachers of English’ have publicly admitted in seminars-and this has been supported by my own observation in many different contexts-that English is seldom used in the classroom. Teachers tend to use Bahasa Indonesia to carry out their English lessons, except, perhaps when greeting students before the session begins and ends. In a situation such as this, students do not have good, functional English language models to learn from. It is difficult to imagine how students in this learning environment could develop a good sense of purpose and direction in learning English.

XIV. Content-Based Instruction
1. h. Definition

Content Based Learning is a study of both language acquisition and subject matter. ( Brown, Douglas. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy ).

Content- based language teaching is a version of bilingual education and subject-teaching which simultaneously teaches the language required for school learning and promotes thinking skills. (Jean Brewster, CATS: The IATEFL Young Learners SIG Publication).

Content-Based Instruction has been described as a new paradigm in language education, centered on fostering student competence in a second or foreign language while advancing in the knowledge of a subject matter. ( A Description of Prototype Models for Content-Based Language Instruction in Higher Education by Maria Duenas ).

Content-based instruction is an approach to language teaching that focuses not on the language itself but rather on what is being taught through the language, it becomes the medium through which something new is learned.

In the CBI approach the student learns the transfer language by using it to learn some other new content. The language being learned and used is taught within the context of the content. The theory behind CBI is that when students are engaged with more content, it will promote intrinsic motivation. Students will be able to use more advanced thinking skills when learning new information and will focus less on the structure of the language.

i. Characteristics

Content-Based Information skills are developed unconsciously through the content dealt with. As Richards and Rodgers point out, if the information delivered through the content is interesting and useful, learners should acquire the language faster. In addition, the language acquisition process may be more efficient and the language learners more motivated. Dornyei stating “students will not be motivated to learn unless they regard the material they are taught as worth learning” (2001: 63). Therefore, it may be advisable within the Content-Based approach to include learners in the choice of topics and activities. Another characteristic of Content-Based Instruction is the use of communication (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 204). There are three principles of communication that define Communicative Language Teaching but which may also be applied to the Content-Based approach.

First, the communication principle which puts forward that activities involving real communication promote language learning.
Secondly, the task principle which refers to the concept that activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote language learning.
And, finally, the meaningfulness principle that implies that language that appears to be meaningful to the learner will support the language learning process (Richards & Rodgers 2001: 161).

There is, however, a major difference between Communicative Language Teaching and Content-Based Instruction. Whereas Communicative Language Teaching is a language-driven approach, focusing on the language itself, Content-Based Instruction is content-driven. Because Content-Based Instruction puts a strong emphasis on communication, it is quite different from traditional methods.

j. Goal

Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is a significant approach in language education it’s designed to provide second-language learners instruction in content and language. The goal of CBI is to prepare students to acquire the languages while using the context of any subject matter so that students learn the language by using it within the specific context. Rather than learning a language out of context, it is learned within the context of a specific academic subject.

k. Teacher and Students Role

Role of the students

Students are actively involved in a Content-Based classroom setting. On the one hand, they are in charge of their own learning process and their support of others and, on the other hand, they may partly choose content and activities. Being actively involved and taking responsibility in a classroom environment appears to be motivating for some though rather overwhelming to others. There are quite a few students who might feel that they cannot keep up with the work-load and quantity of new information.

Role of the teacher

Teaching the Content-Based approach necessitates a large amount of work and energy. The teacher has to fulfill several roles, such as being a good language teacher and in addition having an appropriate knowledge of the subject matter. In addition, the teacher has to choose material. If the material is not suitable enough, he has to adapt it to the learners’ language level. There is, however, quite a variety of material available for teachers to use for Content-Based lessons. First of all, teachers can and should use authentic materials such as newspaper articles and advertisements. These are texts native speakers of the language would read themselves. Authentic material intrinsically interests students and this promotes language learning. As Dornyei points out, “motivation is one of the key issues in language learning” (2001: 1). Secondly, there are, at least in Germany, textbooks available for Content-Based lessons.

l. Technique of Presentation

There are four models in the Content-Based Instruction theme-based courses (TB), adjunct/linked courses (AL), sheltered subject matter instruction (SSM), and second language medium courses (SLM).

1. Theme-based Courses (TB)

Theme-based courses constitute the most common model in CBI thanks to its relative lack of complexity for implementation, as language instructors operate autonomously from the rest of the faculty and there is no demand for organizational or administrative adjustments. In TB, it is a language teacher, and not a subject specialist, that is responsible for teaching content. The foreign language syllabus in TB courses is organized either around different topics within a particular discipline, or including a number of individual topics associated with a relevant general theme or content area. In both cases, themes are the central ideas that organize major curricular units; thus they have to be chosen to be appropriate to student academic and cognitive interests and needs, content resources, educational aims, and institutional demands and expectations. Normally, a course deals with several topics along its progression. Thus a typical TB course consists of a number of subunits focused on different topics which explore more specific aspects or different perspectives of the general theme.

In general terms, topics should be arranged to provide maximum coherence for theme unit, and to generate a range of opportunities to explore both content and language. Each course is, in short, a sequence of topics linked together by the assumption of a coherent overall theme. Courses designed according to the TB approach usually feature a variety of text types and discourse samples, combining oral input teacher presentations, video sequences, recorded passages, guest lecture talk with written materials news articles, essays, informative excerpts, literary passage. Another key characteristic of these courses is the interest in the concept of integrated skills. Although the topics presented are commonly grounded on listening or reading, the oral passage or written text always serves as an optimal foundation for further exploring other areas grammar, vocabulary, language awareness as well as for acting as springboards for the practice of productive skills making presentations and oral reports, engaging in discussions and debates, giving oral or written response to questions or issues associated to the topics, writing summaries, commentaries. TB courses constitute an excellent tool for the integration of language and content providing that curriculum planners, course designers and teachers make all possible efforts to keep language and content exploration in balance, not to lose sight of content and language learning objectives, and not to overwhelm students with excessive amounts of content that may lead to overlooking the language exploitation aspects of instruction.

2. Adjunct/Linked Courses (AL)

AL courses constitute a more sophisticated pattern for the integration of language and content, as they are not developed on their own, but assisting an existing discipline class. The AL model aims at connecting a specially designed language course with a regular academic course. AL courses are taught to students who are simultaneously enrolled in the regular content course, but who lack the necessary competence to follow the course successfully unless some additional aid is provided. The adjunct courses work therefore as support classes for regular subject matter courses, and offer excellent opportunities to develop the academic strategies necessary to cope with real academic content. First of all, the language component of the course is directly linked to the students’ academic needs and so, they can get help revising notes, writing assignments, preparing for tests, etc. as well as advancing in the conceptual background necessary to understand the content material. Additionally, the fact that the course deals with real academic subject matter in which students must earn a passing grade in the parallel course, helps to increase motivation in terms of mastering both the language and the content. These courses are more commonly offered within second language contexts rather than in foreign language ones, although they are also used at international institutions or national institutions using a foreign language as the medium of instruction. Although the benefits of these courses are reported as remarkable, the implementation of the AL model demands organizational requirements and coordination efforts that may exceed the possibilities of many institutions. Synchronization between instructors is essential: the syllabi of the two classes have to be negotiated with respect to each other, although it is typical that the discipline course provides the point of departure for the language class, dictating both the content and its progression.

3. Sheltered subject-matter instruction (SSM)

A sheltered content-based course is taught in a second language by a content specialist to a group of learners who have been segregated or ‘sheltered’ from native speakers. In sheltered subject-matter instruction, the class is commonly taught by a content instructor, not a language teacher; this content instructor, however, has to be sensitized to the students’ language needs and abilities, and has to be familiarized with the traits of the language acquisition process In order to meet the desired effect, there has to be an accommodation of the instruction to the students’ level of proficiency in the language; content, however, is not watered down, and includes the same components as a regular subject course. Although the main characteristic of the model is facilitating the development of language abilities for students to meet the course aims, it has to be kept in mind that the overall purpose of SSM courses is content learning rather than language learning, so this model constitutes one of the “strong” paradigms within the general framework of CBI.

4. Second language medium courses (SLM)

In these cases, language aims are not contemplated as part of the curricular formulations of the given courses; in fact classes of this kind normally proceed without specific instructional emphasis on language analysis and practice, and without making adjustments to adequate the discourse to the level of proficiency of students. The context, however, provides valuable opportunities for language learning as it involves intensive exposure to highly contextualized language of particular relevance to the academic interest of students. These therefore manage to advance their language competence by developing receptive and productive skills though in an unplanned, unsystematic way. This would be the case, for instance, of advanced-level literature or linguistics courses within the English Studies degree in Spanish universities, with classes taught entirely in English to a non-native audience. In the aforementioned existing continuum between the weaker and stronger models of CBI, SLM would constitute the strongest version within the framework.

There are many ways to approach creating a CBI lesson. This is one possible way.

v Preparation

Choose a subject of interest to students.
Find three or four suitable sources that deal with different aspects of the subject. These could be websites, reference books, audio or video of lectures or even real people.

v During the lesson

Divide the class into small groups and assign each group a small research task and a source of information to use to help them fulfill the task.
Then once they have done their research they form new groups with students that used other information sources and share and compare their information.
- There should then be some product as the end result of this sharing of information which could take the form of a group report or presentation of some kind.

m. Advantages and Disadvantages
1. Advantages:

It can make learning a language more interesting and motivating. Students can use the language to fulfill a real purpose, which can make students both more independent and confident.
Students can also develop a much wider knowledge of the world through Content-Based Instruction which can feed back into improving and supporting their general educational needs.
Content-Based Instruction is very popular among EAP (English for Academic Purposes) teachers as it helps students to develop valuable study skills such as note taking, summarising and extracting key information from texts.
Taking information from different sources, re-evaluating and restructuring that information can help students to develop very valuable thinking skills that can then be transferred to other subjects.
The inclusion of a group work element within the framework given above can also help students to develop their collaborative skills, which can have great social value.
Learners are exposed to a considerable amount of language through stimulating content. Learners explore interesting content & are engaged in appropriate language-dependant activities. Learning language becomes automatic.
Content-Based Instruction supports contextualized learning; learners are taught useful language that is embedded within relevant discourse contexts rather than as isolated language fragments. Hence students make greater connections with the language & what they already know.
Complex information is delivered through real life context for the students to grasp well & leads to intrinsic motivation.
In CBI information is reiterated by strategically delivering information at right time & situation compelling the students to learn out of passion.
Greater flexibility & adaptability in the curriculum can be deployed as per the students interest.

2. Disadvantages:

Because Content-Based Instruction isn’t explicitly focused on language learning, some students may feel confused or may even feel that they aren’t improving their language skills. Deal with this by including some form of language focused follow-up exercises to help draw attention to linguistic features within the materials and consolidate any difficult vocabulary or grammar points.
Particularly in monolingual classes, the overuse of the students’ native language during parts of the lesson can be a problem. Because the lesson isn’t explicitly focused on language practice students find it much easier and quicker to use their mother tongue. Try sharing your rationale with students and explain the benefits of using the target language rather than their mother tongue.
It can be hard to find information sources and texts that lower levels can understand. Also the sharing of information in the target language may cause great difficulties. A possible way around this at lower levels is either to use texts in the students’ native language and then get them to use the target language for the sharing of information and end product, or to have texts in the target language, but allow the students to present the end product in their native language. These options should reduce the level of challenge.
Some students may copy directly from the source texts they use to get their information. Avoid this by designing tasks that demand students evaluate the information in some ways, to draw conclusions or actually to put it to some practical use. Having information sources that have conflicting information can also be helpful as students have to decide which information they agree with or most believe.

n. Application

Many models for Content Based Learning exist. In some schools, two teachers team-teach the content and language. In other schools, the content teacher and the language teacher link their classes and curriculum to compliment each other. The most challenging situation is where one teacher is responsible for both content and language. The teacher must be an expert in both fields.

Some examples of content based curricula:

Immersion program
Sheltered English programs
Writing across the curriculum (where writing skills in secondary schools and universities are taught within subject-matter areas like biology, history, art, etc.)

Here is the example of syllabus for a theme based CBI psychology class:

Unit 1 Introduction to psychology
Unit 2 Types of learning
Unit 3 Advertising and psychological techniques
Unit 4 Counseling
Unit 5 Psychological illnesses
Unit 6 Project work

Each unit took from two to three weeks to complete. The students had two classes per week and each class lasted for two and a half hours. The aim was to allow the students to explore various aspects of psychology rather than attempting to give them a thorough grounding in a subject which, we believed, would have been too difficult for them to understand at this stage. In fact one of the strengths of theme based CBI is its flexibility; teachers can create units with specific learner needs in mind. For example, Unit 3 began with some textbook readings followed by questions and written work. After this the students were given some advertisements to analyze and also brought in their own examples for use in group discussions. Finally, for a small group project, they designed their own advertisements and then presented their work to the other class members with a rationale for why they had chosen their product and who the target customers would be. Among the products they designed were a genetically engineered cake tree and a time vision camera. Student progress can then be assessed when classes are underway. Continuous assessment is effective. Daily quizzes can be used to check that content information is getting through to the students and that they are remembering important vocabulary. Longer tests may also be given at mid-term and at the end of the term. Journals are also a useful diagnostic tool. Students can be given time at the end of each class to write a summary of the content of the lesson or to answer a specific question given by the teacher. Another useful exercise is to allow the students to write freely on any topic; teachers can then read their work and assess their progress indirectly. Direct oral feedback during the classes can be useful as long as we are mindful of the proficiency level of the students; it’s all too easy to forget how difficult it is to speak a foreign language in front of classmates.

XV. Task Based Approach
1. a. Definition

Theory and practice around TBA are far from being uniform and clear. A review of the literature on the topic reveals that governing principles are loose and not everybody shares the same defining criteria. The TBA has also been applied in different ways in the classroom. Breen (1987:157) advocates a difference between task-based syllabuses and process syllabuses, although he acknowledges roots common to both of them, which are named ‘process plans’. That is, task-based syllabuses are ‘process based’. Does the concept of task imply more emphasis on the process of doing things than on the goal it aims at? Processes and goals both belong to the nature of tasks. Why not focus on goals more than on processes, or on goals as much as on processes? Are goals less important than the way we achieve them? Traditional methodology and school practice have prioritised goals in general and a similar point of view is to be detected in many other areas of human action. This appears not to be the case in the TBA.

Long and Crookes (1992:27) affirm that ‘three new, task-based syllabus types appeared in the 1980s: (a) the procedural syllabus, (b) the process syllabus, and (c) the task-syllabus’, adding later on that ‘all three reject linguistic elements as the unit of analysis and opt instead for some conception of task’. Following this statement, tasks are to be considered essential to the three of them and constitute a common denominator, not just a distinctive element of the task-based syllabus vs. the other two syllabus types. This view is not easy to match with other views, in which, for example, task-based syllabuses are seen as different from process-syllabuses, while both are rooted in ‘process plans’(See Breen 1987a; 1987b). Do differences derive from the underlying concept of task?

Tasks, in fact, have been defined in different ways. Prabhu proposes the following definition:

An activity which required learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process, was regarded as a ‘task’. Prabhu (1987:24)

The nature of task is depicted in quite general traits. Two important features are however mentioned, tightly connected to what was going on in the project: task completion (an outcome at the end of the activity) and a process ‘of thought’ while doing the activity. The activity itself, curiously enough, ‘allowed teachers to control and regulate the process’ (Where is the autonomy of the learner in building his own path of learning?).

Long (1985) defines tasks looking at what people usually do in real life: A piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus, examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation, borrowing a library book, taking a driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, taking a hotel reservation, writing a check, finding a street destination and helping someone across a road. In other words, by ‘task’ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play, and in between. Tasks are the things people will tell you they do if you ask them and they are not applied linguists. (Long 1985:89)

Task-base Language Teaching is an approach that asks you to organize your classroom around those practical tasks that language users engage in the real world. (from the internet)

From the dictionary, a task is an activity “where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.”

Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is a communicative approach to language instruction, using the successful completion of communicative “tasks” as its primary organizing principle. In short, instruction is organized in such a way that students will improve their language ability by focusing on getting something done while using the language, rather than on explicitly practicing language forms, as in more traditional methods of instruction. (© Pearson Education Asia Limited 2008).

So, from the definition of the task-base above, we can conclude that the task is an activity in which students use language to achieve a specific outcome. The primary focus of classroom activity is the task and language is the instrument which the students use to complete it. The activity reflects real life and learners focus on meaning, they are free to use any language they want. Playing a game, solving a problem or sharing information or experiences, can all be considered as relevant and authentic tasks. In TBL an activity in which students are given a list of words to use cannot be considered as a genuine task. Nor can a normal role play if it does not contain a problem-solving element or where students are not given a goal to reach. In many role plays students simply act out their restricted role. For instance, a role play where students have to act out roles as company directors but must come to an agreement or find the right solution within the given time limit can be considered a genuine task in TBL.

b. Characteristics

Students are encouraged to use language creatively and spontaneously through tasks and problem solving
Students focus on a relationship that is comparable to real world activities
The conveyance of some sort of meaning is central to this method
Assessment is primarily based on task outcome
TBLT is student-centered

Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) is the latest trend in SLL approaches. Although it has produced very positive results in certain contexts (eg small class sizes of immigrant children), like every method that has preceded it, TBLT is also revealing its weaknesses. Broady (2006) notes that TBLT may not provide sufficient “Interaction Opportunities.” Bruton (2005) identifies other concerns:

There is no acquisition of new grammar or vocabulary features
Everything is left to the teacher
Not all students are or will be motivated by TBLT
Some students need more guidance and will not or cannot `notice´ language forms (grammar) or other elements of accuracy
Students typically translate and use a lot of their L1 rather than the target language in completing the tasks.

c. Goal

The main advantages of TBL are that language is used for a genuine purpose meaning that real communication should take place, and that at the stage where the learners are preparing their report for the whole class, they are forced to consider language form in general rather than concentrating on a single form (as in the PPP model). Whereas the aim of the PPP model is to lead from accuracy to fluency, the aim of TBL is to integrate all four skills and to move from fluency to accuracy plus fluency. The range of tasks available (reading texts, listening texts, problem-solving, role-plays, questionnaires, etc) offers a great deal of flexibility in this model and should lead to more motivating activities for the learners.

Learners who are used to a more traditional approach based on a grammatical syllabus may find it difficult to come to terms with the apparent randomness of TBL, but if TBL is integrated with a systematic approach to grammar and lexis, the outcome can be a comprehensive, all-round approach that can be adapted to meet the needs of all learners.

d. Teacher and Students Role

Teacher says	Teacher does	Students say	Students do	Why?
Presents task in the TL	Primes students with key vocabulary and constructions	Students speak among themselves to organize and complete task. Students present final task (sometimes orally).	Students prepare either a written or oral report to present to class.	Provides practical linguistic skill building. When tasks are familiar to students, they are more likely to be engaged and motivated. Students learn languages through problem-solving.

e. Technique of Presentation

The traditional way that teachers have used tasks is as a follow-up to a series of structure/function or vocabulary based lessons. Tasks have been ‘extension’ activities as part of a graded and structured course.

In task-based learning, the tasks are central to the learning activity. Originally developed by N Prabhu in Bangladore, southern India, it is based on the belief that students may learn more effectively when their minds are focused on the task, rather than on the language they are using.

In the model of task-based learning described by Jane Willis, the traditional PPP (presentation, practice, production) lesson is reversed. The students start with the task. When they have completed it, the teacher draws attention to the language used, making corrections and adjustments to the students’ performance. In A Framework for Task-Based Learning, Jane Willis presents a three stage process:

Pre-task – Introduction to the topic and task.
Task cycle – Task planning and report
Language focus – Analysis and practice.

Does it work?

Task-based learning can be very effective at intermediate levels and beyond, but many teachers question its usefulness at lower levels. The methodology requires a change in the traditional teacher’s role. The teacher does not introduce and ‘present’ language or interfere (‘help’) during the task cycle. The teacher is an observer during the task phase and becomes a language informant only during the ‘language focus’ stage.

f. Advantages and Disadvantages
1. Advantages

A task-based approach solves many of the criticisms traditionally associated with Communicative Language Teaching. To begin with, consider these characteristics of tasks:

• Meaning is primary.

• Learners are not restricted in their use of language forms.

• Tasks should bear a relationship to real-world activities.

• The priority is on achieving the goal of the task.

• Tasks are assessed based on their outcome.

TBLT provides a structured framework for both instruction and assessment. Using tasks as the basic building blocks of syllabus design allows teachers to both sequence lessons and assess their outcomes, while at the same time creating reasonably authentic parameters within which students can communicate with each other for a purpose. Most importantly, it allows them to focus on what it is that they are saying to each other, rather than on how they are saying it. A task may be short and self-contained (e.g., ordering a pizza by telephone) or longer and more complex (e.g., organizing and publishing a student newspaper), but the tasks always involve a clear and practical outcome (e.g., The pizza arrives with the correct toppings, or the newspaper is printed and is recognizably a newspaper).

In a task-based approach, specific language forms should never be the primary focus, because it is important that students be allowed to make meaning in whichever way they see fit, at least at first. Teachers may assist or even correct students when asked, of course, but may not restrict the students’ choice of which forms to use by explicitly teaching, say, the present continuous before the task is attempted. A post-task phase, on the other hand, is generally recognized by TBLT practitioners as useful. During this segment of the lesson, after the students have attempted the task, the teacher may choose to go over the language used, correcting specific errors and/or highlighting particularly well-suited forms that students may have attempted to use.

When considering TBLT, it is crucial to focus on the fundamental notion of authenticity, as tasks attempt to simulate, in a way that is as authentic as possible, what happens when students attempt real-world activities. This has several advantages:

• Authentic tasks are intrinsically motivating. That is, students attempt them because they see that the task is, in itself, interesting and applicable to their lives.

• Targeted real-world tasks have much clearer outcomes that can be more easily assessed, unlike more general, or “open,” tasks such as having a conversation. For example, when a person attempts to order a pizza on the telephone in a second language, that person knows if he or she has “passed” or “failed” within a very short time—when the pizza does or does not arrive, with the correct toppings or not.

• Real-world activities can be looked at and sequenced in much the same way as grammar forms can—from simpler to more complex. For instance, ordering from a menu at a restaurant is easier than ordering by telephone for several reasons—students can use gestures, text and sometimes pictures; there is less information to convey (e.g., no address or credit card number); students may resort to single-word utterances. In the same way, telling a story is more complex than both examples above, because students now need to use connected sentences, time markers, pronouns and so on. It can be reasonably assumed that a student who can tell a story in English can also telephone for a pizza or order at a restaurant (but not vice-versa), in much the same way as we can reasonably assume that a student who can use conditionals can also use the present continuous (but again, not vice-versa).

Therefore, when a series of connected, themed tasks are sequenced in such a way as allows students to simulate a real-world context and perform at an increasing level of complexity, a variety of benefits occur. These include a purpose-driven recycling of vocabulary and language forms, a heightened sense of overall motivation, a marked increase in communicative confidence, scaffolded autonomy-building and a truly student-centered classroom. Much of the language learning thus occurs implicitly, as noticing on the part of the student, rather than as explaining on the part of the teacher.

Task-based learning is advantageous to the student because it is more student-centered, allows for more meaningful communication, and often provides for practical extra-linguistic skill building. As the tasks are likely to be familiar to the students (eg: visiting the doctor), students are more likely to be engaged, which may further motivate them in their language learning.

Additionally, tasks promote language acquisition through the types of language and interaction they require. Although the teacher may present language in the pre-task, the students are ultimately free to use what grammar constructs and vocabulary they want. This allows them to use all the language they know and are learning, rather than just the ‘target language’ of the lesson. On the other hand, tasks can also be designed to make certain target forms ‘task-essential,’ thus making it communicatively necessary for students to practice using them. In terms of interaction, information gap tasks in particular have been shown to promote negotiation of meaning and output modification.

2. Disadvantages

While task-based language learning is increasingly promoted world-wide and has the advantages described above, there are trade-offs and pitfalls to be considered in planning instruction around it. These include the risk that students will stay within the narrow confines of familiar words and forms, just “getting by”, so as to avoid the extra effort and risks of error that accompany stretching to use new words and forms. As with all group work, in group tasks, some students can “hide” and rely on others to do the bulk of the work and learning. A second challenge is that the new learning elicited by the task-based lesson–one of its benefits–may yet be lost if the lesson did not include sufficient planning for, or runs out of time for, that new learning to be captured and reinforced while it is still fresh. A third challenge, one applying to many otherwise valuable language teaching methods, is the difficulty of implementing task-based teaching where classes are large and space limited and/or inflexible.

g. Application

The Application of Task-based Language Teaching Method in the Reading Teaching

For a long time, reading teaching is one of the most important parts of English teaching in senior middle school; it can be seen from the whole situation of senior English teaching. Therefore, many teachers have devoted their efforts to improve English reading teaching, but there are still some problems in English reading teaching, such as: the falling behind of education conception, the lacking of teaching method, the low effect of lecture teaching and the lack of reading ability. It is important to bear in mind that reading is not an invariant skill, there are different types of reading skills which correspond to many different purposes we have for reading.

Teachers should not neglect the importance of English reading in senior middle school and the proportion of it in the college entrance examination. In reading teaching, cultivating the student’s reading interest, enhancing the skills of acquiring, analyzing, judging and dealing with information, and improving students’ reading skills as a whole, are the most important things. In order to improve English reading ability, teachers have formed many models of English reading teaching. Such as: the bottom-up approach in reading teaching, the quiz reading teaching and the discussing reading teaching. However, these models still have many problems.

In order to cope with these problems, many countries or districts, such as America, Canada, Singapore and Hong Kong, have advocated Task-based Language Teaching method, which is based on the development of language knowledge, language skill, emotion attitude, learning tactics and cultural awareness. What’s more, it aims at cultivating students’ language application ability. In China, Education Section also points out that teachers should not apply such kind of teaching method–simply teaching language knowledge, but try to adopt task-based language teaching method ( letting students carry on their study by completing these tasks and do things through using English) to cultivate students’ ability to utilize language synthetically.

The significance of this thesis lies in the application of the task-based language teaching method in the reading teaching of senior middle school. If the task-based approach gains popularity and is implemented well and properly, the quality of English reading teaching in senior middle schools will be increased and students’ educational prospects will be better.

What are some examples of tasks that can be used in the classroom?

David Nunan (2001) distinguishes between “real-world or target tasks, which are communicative acts that we achieve through language in the world outside the classroom, and pedagogical tasks, which are carried out in the classroom. I subdivide pedagogical tasks into those with a rehearsal rationale and those with a pedagogical rationale” (Nunan, 2001). The goal of the language teacher is try to develop pedagogical tasks thatare as close to real-world tasks as possoble, thus creating activities that are meaningful and relevant to students.

Complete the activity below to explore ways to practice grammar and communication in a task-based manner. In your opinion, would these tasks be motivating for students? Why or why not?

Write the past tense form of these verbs: go, is, are, do, have, work, study, buy, pick, make, put, read.

Grammar Activity

Now think of four things you did yesterday. Write sentences in the blanks.
First I got up and _____________________________________________
Then, _______________________________________________________
Next, _______________________________________________________
Finally, ______________________________________________________

Communicative activity

Write three hobbies or activities you like / like doing.
1. _______________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________

Ask each person in your group what they like / like doing. Decide on a suitable gift for each person. (Exerices adpated from David Nunan, The English Centre, University of Hong Kong, December 2001)

XVI. Participatory Approach
1. h. Definition

Participatory approach is introduced in the beginning of 1980s by Paulo Freire. As stated by Auerbach in Halley L. Wiggins’ journal (2004), participatory approaches focus on social transformation and make curriculum from the context of learners’ lives. Participatory approach is based on solving the learner’s problem in real life using the target language as a tool for this purpose. Larsen and Freeman (2000) says that participatory approach is similar to content-based approach in that it begins with content that is meaningful to the students and any forms that are worked upon emerge from that content. The different is on the nature of the content where participatory approach is based on issues of concern to students. It can be concluded that participatory approach is a way in solving problem or a task in a classroom that the problem is based on the students experience in their life.

This approach’s limitation is that participatory approach concern to students while the students’ problem is used as a discussion theme in the classroom.

i. Characteristics

ü In the beginning class that using participatory approach, the teacher introducing one problem relates to the student’s live.

ü Students are asked to make a group discussion with the theme is the problems in their life.

ü In participatory approach, teacher is using contents relevant to students’ live and the curriculum is not the predetermined product, but rather the result of ongoing context specific-problem posing process.

ü What happens in the classroom should be relate with what happens to the students outside the classroom.

ü When knowledge is jointly constructed, it becomes a tool to help students find the voice and by finding their voice, student can act in the world.

ü In this approach, students learn to see themselves as social and political being.

ü In having material, students create their own material, which, in turn can become a text for other students.

ü Linguistic form is focused in this approach and language skills are taught to prompt action for change, rather than in isolation.

j. Goal

The goal of participatory approach is to help student to understand the social, historical, or cultural, forces that affect their lives and then to help emprower students to take action and make decision in order to gain control over their lives (Wallerstein,1983). By using participatory approach, the students are able to apply their knowledge in studying language in their live and or they are able to solve the real problem in real live with another people.

k. Teacher and Students Role

Teacher acts as a facilitator not as the one and only source of knowledge (Frederick.1998). In such learner-centered classroom, it needs special quality qualities including maturity, intuition, and educational skills (to develop students’ awareness of language and learning) (Harmer, Jeremy.2003). Teacher role in this approach is to first help learners in comparing and contrasting experiences, and imagining or create new possibilities for change.

In participatory approach, students are motivated by their personal involvement. They are asked to be independent so that in the end they can evaluate their own learning by themselves.

l. Technique of Presentation

Own life experience

The teachers of adult encourage their students to use their own life experience in the learning process too (Harmer, Jeremy.2003). An adult learner-language is believed that they have many experiences. Teachers might ask what has happened to the students last day and then make the problem of the students as their material.

Pictures

Pictures are useful for getting students to predict what is coming next in a lesson. Thus students might look at a picture and try to guess what it shows.

Discussion

Discussion could be used to solve the problem of the student’s experience.

Group work

Students work together to solve the problem or question which relates to their experience (Larsen-Freeman, 2000). In discussing the solution, it can be done by group working.

Self evaluation

The goal of participatory approach is for students to be evaluating their own learning and to increasingly direct it themselves.

m. Advantages and Disadvantages

Many advantages can be taken from participatory approach. It can help the student to be a creative learner such when the teacher gives them a problem and they have to respond by giving solution of the problem. In this situation, the students might create or find various possibilities of solution. Participatory approach helps the students to relate their knowledge in their real live with the lesson in the class. Therefore, the students not only get the theory but a real material that can they apply in their real life. As Auerbach (1992:14) puts it, ’Real communication accompanied by appropriate feedback that subordinates form to the elaboration of meaning, is key for language learning’.

In other side, the disadvantage of participatory approach is on the self evaluating. It is afraid that the correction is not right at all. Learner is not the same with the teacher whom know more than the learner.

n. Application

The participatory approach is applied to adult learners of second language. The adult learners are believed that they have more complex of knowledge in their live.

In the beginning class the learners/ students are asked by the teacher about their problem in their life. The teacher then shows a learning media such a picture card that relates to the student’s problem. In a group, teacher asks the students to discuss what the best solution to solve that problem. The next, each student copy the result of the discussion and use it as a material of the lesson.

XVII. Learning Strategy Training
1. h. Definition

O’Malley and Chamot (1990) define learning strategies as special ways in information processing that enhance comprehension, learning or retention of 3 information. They also summarized that learning strategies can be divided into Meta-cognitive, Cognitive and Social or Affective Strategies.

Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary and Robbins (1999) stated, “Differences between more effective learners and less effective learners were found in the number and range of strategies used, in how the strategies were applied to the task, and in whether they were appropriate for the task” (p.166). Therefore, teaching learning strategies is especially useful for the latter learners. Learning strategies should be selected to match the activity. Teachers may teach their students some strategies, yet these strategies might not fit them all the time. Whether teachers teach students optional strategies is definitely an important factor and will affect whether they can be proficient English learners. As their learning styles are different, their preferred learning strategies are different, too. If they can find the strategies which are effective for studying, they will be able to study successfully.

Strategic Planning should not be viewed as a guarantee to future success. Strategic Planning has limitations, such as the following:

Strategic Planning is not a way of making future decisions. There is no way anyone can predict the future. Strategic Planning provides overall guidance and direction based on what we think will happen.
Strategic Planning is not a blueprint for the future. There are too many changes taking place – marketplace is changing, customer preferences are changing, new competition, new technologies, new opportunities, declining financial condition, etc. Strategic Planning is a dynamic process, which is receptive to change.
Strategic Planning cannot resolve critical situations threatening the organization. Strategic Planning will not get you out of a crisis. The organization should be stable before engaging in strategic planning.
Strategic Planning should not replace good intuitive judgements. If an organization is lucky enough to have good intuitive thinkers, then exercise extreme care before embarking on formal strategic planning. You do not want to destroy intuitive thinking within the organization.
Strategic Planning will not identify all critical issues related to the organization. Strategic Planning attempts to identify the most significant issues that will confront the organization. By focusing on major issues, strategic plans minimize the detail and thereby improve the chances for successful implementation.
i. Characteristics

1. Direct strategies

According to Oxford (1990), “Language learning strategies that directly involve the target language are called direct strategies”(p.37). As seen in the diagram, Oxford defines Memory strategies, Cognitive strategies, and Compensation strategies as direct strategies.

“Memory strategies, such as grouping or using imagery, have a highly specific function: helping students store and retrieve new information. Cognitive strategies, such as summarizing or reasoning deductively, enable learners to understand and produce new language by many different means. Compensation strategies, like guessing or using synonyms, allow learners to use the language despite their often large gaps in knowledge”(p.37).

a. Memory strategies

There needs to be an expansion of Memory Strategies as applied to EFL. Memory strategies as well as Cognitive Strategies are very important for vocabulary building. However, the instruction for vocabulary building has heavily relied on rote memorization for a long time. As a way of creating mental linkages, grouping or associating will increase students’ vocabulary; semantic mapping or using imaginary will tighten their memory; and using physical responses will allow them to memorize words like parts of a body.

b. Cognitive strategies

Cognitive strategies are very important strategies to improve students’ ability. Specifically, these strategies are crucial for academic skills. As examples of practicing, Oxford (1990) lists repeating, formally practicing with sounds and writing system, recognizing and using formulas and patterns, recombining and practicing naturalistically (p.45). Above all, she emphasizes practicing naturalistically as the most significant strategy. For the strategy, receiving messages, Skimming and scanning is usedfor strategy training. For analyzing and reasoning, it would used for teach breaking the words into parts when they encounter long words. Creating structure for input and output and strategies for note taking should be seriously taught. The technique of highlighting should also be encouraged by teachers. Summarizing is a relatively difficult strategy for beginning students, however, it should be taught when students reach a certain level. In utilize group work or pair work in which the students “discover” the rules of grammar or analyze the compounds of words. These are also useful for practicing and increasing interaction.

c. Compensation strategies

Scarcella and Oxford (1992) mentioned a low self-esteem-intolerance of ambiguity spiral (p.58). Compensation strategies should be taught to students to have students develop more linguistic flexibility. Because students will encounter the contents or information which they cannot understand completely for reading or listening, teachers should teach them to try not to understand every single word, but to guess the meaning. Students will feel relieved from the instruction; they will expand their English proficiency by guessing. Overcoming limitations is definitely a valuable strategy in learning. Clarifying the question and showing hesitation in order to get help will ease communication difficulties and are relatively easy strategies to acquire. Using gestures or explaining with other words in order to compensate the unknown word will be very helpful. To practice the strategies, I would create situations in which students use English as much as possible. Hopefully, the communicative task will engage the students so much that they will be able to overcome their shyness or discomfort and more importantly, learn to make repeated attempts to communicate effectively when their initial attempts are unsuccessful.

2. Indirect strategies

Oxford (1990) defines Metacognitive strategies, Affective strategies and Social strategies as indirect strategies which “support and manage learning without directly involving the target language” (p.135).

“Metacognitive strategies allow learners to control their own cognition- that is, to coordinate the learning process by using functions such as centering, arranging, planning, and evaluating. Affective strategies help to regulate emotions, motivations, and attitude. Social strategies help students learn through interaction with others”(p.135).

Oxford (1990) stated, “Direct and indirect strategies are equally important and serve to support each other in many ways”(p.12). Indirect strategies should also be taken into consideration.

a. Metacognitive strategies

Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary and Robbins (1999) indicated the insufficient comprehension of metacognitive strategy use of less effective students (p. 166) and they showed the four processes of the Metacognitive Model as planning, monitoring, problem solving, and evaluating (p.11). These processes allow learners to achieve their goals and expand their learning to a further stage. They are included in Oxford’s category. In fact, it is very difficult for some students to use time effectively, even though they know what they should do. The more efficient students become at budgeting their time, the better their results will be. An organizer would be helpful for them in order to budget their time, and to be used as a study log.

b. Affective strategies

According to O’Malley and Chamot (1990: 4), Affective strategies involve “mental control over personal effects that interferes with learning”.

c. Social strategies

Social strategies will help students become positive learners. To raise students’ awareness about the importance of learning from others, again, group work such as discussion or pair work, should be incorporated into the lessons. These activities allow students to interact with peers, which is a necessity for acquiring language.

A. Framework for learning strategies training

Oxford (1990), Chamot (1998) and others suggest, strategies can be taught by strategy training. In her book, Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know (1990), Oxford showed great examples. Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary and Robbins also suggested splendid models in The Learning Strategies Handbook (1999). In the book, they mention the CALLA Instructional Framework as Preparation, Presentation, Practice, Evaluation and Expansion. The idea is similar to that of the 4 MAT style. Both of them suggest the importance of a reasonable sequence of the learning process. These examples show us how important it is to demonstrate the natural process of learning. As strategy training is especially important for learners who cannot manage their learning by themselves, strategy selection based on the framework provides good guidance for teaching learning strategies. It would be very effective if teachers introduce this idea as strategy training in their lessons, too. Chamot Barnhardt, El-Dinary and Robbins (1990) presented many instructional

lesson plans to include learning strategies which follow the five phases of the learning framework.

The instructional framework is as follows:

(From The Learning Strategies Handbook by Chamot, Barnhardt, El-Dinary and Robbins )

Preparation

Students prepare for strategies instruction by identifying their prior knowledge about and the use of specific strategies.

Example:

Setting goals and objectives, identifying the purpose of a language task, over – viewing and linking with already known materials.

Presentation

The teacher demonstrates the new learning strategy and explains how and when to use it.

Example:

Explaining the importance of the strategy, asking students when they use the strategy.

Practice

Students practice using the strategy with regular class activities.

Example:

Asking questions, cooperating with others, seeking practice opportunities.

Evaluation

Students self-evaluate their use of the learning strategy and how well the strategy is working for them.

Example:

Self-monitoring, self-evaluating, evaluating their leaning

Expansion

Students extend the usefulness of the learning strategy by applying it to new situations or leaning for them.

Example:

Arranging and planning their learning

The notion of the ‘good language learner’

Most researchers have rejected the notion of a single profile of the “good language learner” because over the years research studies have shown that there can be striking differences among equally successful language learners (for example, see Macaro, 2001). Rather than limiting the description of the good language learner to one that is prescriptive and ignores learner differences, the more recent and inclusive view is that there are various ways that language learners can be successful. For the most part, these learners are strategic in their learning. Rubin (1975) identified the following strategies used by good language learners:

• Making reasoned guesses when not sure

• Making an effort to communicate and to learn through communication

• Finding strategies for overcoming inhibitions in target language interaction

• Practicing the language whenever possible

• Monitoring their speech and that of others

• Attending to form (i.e., grammar)

• Paying attention to meaning

The important thing to realize about this list or other more recent lists is that good language learners do not necessarily use the same language strategies. Even if they use the same strategies, they may not use them for the same purposes nor in the same way. For example, one learner focuses on form only while reading and writing, while another does so while listening and speaking as well. While the first learner focuses on form in a global way, the second learner is far more analytical and pays attention to minute details associated with the forms and rules associated with their use.

Research on strategies for effective language learning has focused on (1) the identification, description, and classification of strategies; (2) their frequency of use and the learner’s success at using them; (3) differences in language proficiency level, age, gender, and cultural background that might affect their successful use of strategies; and (4) the impact of language strategy training on student performance in language learning and language use.

Whether the strategies that a given learner selects are successful depends on many factors, including:

• Nature of the language task (its structure, purpose, and demands)

• Characteristics of the learner such as learning-style preferences

• Language-learning aptitude

• Prior experience with learning other foreign languages

• Motivation to learn this language, cultural background, age, and personality characteristics

• Language being learned

• Learner’s level of language proficiency

j. Goal

Language Strategy Training aims to provide learners with the tools to do the following:

• Self-diagnose their strengths and weaknesses in language learning.

• Become aware of what helps them to learn the target language most efficiently.

• Develop a broad range of problem-solving skills.

• Experiment with familiar and unfamiliar learning strategies.

• Make decisions about how to approach a language task.

• Monitor and self-evaluate their performance.

• Transfer successful strategies to new learning contexts.

Strategies can be categorized as either language learning or language use strategies. Language learning strategies are conscious thoughts and behaviors used by learners with the explicit goal of improving their knowledge and understanding of a target language. They include cognitive strategies for memorizing and manipulating target language structures, metacognitive strategies for managing and supervising strategy use, affective strategies for gauging emotional reactions to learning and for lowering anxieties, and social strategies for enhancing learning, such as cooperating with other learners and seeking to interact with native speakers.

Language use strategies come into play once the language material is already accessible, even in some preliminary form. Their focus is to help students utilize the language they have already learned. Language use strategies include strategies for retrieving information about the language already stored in memory, rehearsing target language structures, and communicating in the language despite gaps in target language knowledge.

k. Teacher and Students Role

L2 teachers should consider various ways to prepare to conduct strategy instruction in their classes. Helpful preparatory steps include taking teacher development courses, finding relevant information in print or on the Internet, and making contacts with specialists. Although we do not yet know all we wish to know about optimal strategy instruction, there is growing evidence that L2 teachers can and should conduct strategy instruction in their classrooms. For some teachers it might be better to start with small strategy interventions, such as helping L2 readers learn to analyze words and guess meanings from the context, rather than with full-scale strategies-based instruction involving a vast array of learning strategies and the four language skills, i.e., reading, writing, speaking and listening.

Other teachers might want to move rapidly into strategies-based instruction. Strategies based instruction is not so much a separate “instructional method” as it is sound strategy instruction interwoven with the general communicative language teaching approach noted above. Chamot and O’Malley (1996) describe the CALLA model, a form of strategies-based instruction for ESL learners that includes explicit strategy instruction, content area instruction, and academic language development. Cohen (1998) presents a different but somewhat related version of strategies-based instruction for native English speakers learning foreign languages.

In evaluating the success of any strategy instruction, teachers should look for individuals’ progress toward L2 proficiency and for signs of increased self-efficacy or motivation.

The intent of learning strategies instruction is to help all students become better language learners. When students begin to understand their own learning processes and can exert some control over these processes, they tend to take more responsibility for their own learning. This self knowledge and skill in regulating one’s own learning is a characteristic of successful learners, including successful language learners. Research with both first and second language learners is revealing some of the ways of thinking that guide and assist an individual’s attempts to learn more effectively (Paris & Winograd, 1990).

Students who think and work strategically are more motivated to learn and have a higher sense of self-efficacy or confidence in their own learning ability. That is, strategic students perceive themselves as more able to succeed academically than students who do not know how to use strategies effectively. Students who expect to be successful at a learning task generally are successful, and each successful learning experience increases motivation.

In order to continue to be successful with learning tasks, students need to be aware of the strategies that led to their success. Awareness of one’s own thinking processes is generally referred to as metacognition or metacognitive awareness (Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995; Rivers, 2001). The value of this type of self-knowledge is that it leads to reflection, to planning how to proceed with a learning task, to monitoring one’s own performance on an ongoing basis, and to self-evaluation upon task completion. In other words, it leads to self-regulation of one’s learning. Students with greater metacognitive awareness understand the similarity between the current learning task and previous ones, know the strategies required for successful learning, and anticipate success as a result of knowing “how to learn.”

l. Technique of Presentation

The approaches outlined offer options for providing strategy training to a large number of learners. Based on the needs, resources, and time available to an institution, the next step is to plan the instruction students will receive. The following seven steps are based largely on suggestions of strategy training by Oxford (1990). The model is especially useful because it can be adapted to the needs of various groups of learners, the resources available, and the length of the strategy training. See Cohen (1998) for a thorough description of these steps.

1. Determine learners’ needs and the resources available for training.

2. Select the strategies to be taught.

3. Consider the benefits of integrated strategy training.

4. Consider motivational issues.

5. Prepare the materials and activities.

6. Conduct explicit strategy training.

7. Evaluate and revise the strategy training.

ü Strategy Instruction Research

To increase L2 proficiency, some researchers and teachers have provided instruction that helped students learn how to use more relevant and more powerful learning strategies. In ESL/EFL studies, positive effects of strategy instruction emerged for proficiency in speaking (Dadour & Robbins, 1996; O’Malley, Chamot, Stewner-Manzanares, Küpper, & Russo, 1985) and reading (Park-Oh, 1994), although results for listening were not significant (O’Malley et al., 1985). Chamot et al. (1996), Cohen et al. (1995), and Cohen and Weaver (1998) investigated the effects of strategy instruction among native-English-speaking learners of foreign languages and found some positive results mixed with neutral findings. In other studies, strategy instruction led to increased EFL learning motivation (Nunan, 1997) and, among native-English-speaking learners of foreign languages, greater strategy use and self-efficacy (Chamot et al., 1996).

The most effective strategy instruction appears to include demonstrating when a given strategy might be useful, as well as how to use and evaluate it, and how to transfer it to other related tasks and situations. So far, research has shown the most beneficial strategy instruction to be woven into regular, everyday L2 teaching, although other ways of doing strategy instruction are possible (Oxford & Leaver, 1996).

ü Assessing Learners’ Use of Strategies

Many assessment tools exist for uncovering the strategies used by L2 learners. Self-report-surveys, observations, interviews, learner journals, dialogue journals, think-aloud techniques, and other measures have been used. Each one of these has advantages and disadvantages, as analyzed by Oxford (1990) and Cohen and Scott (1996). The most widely used survey, the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (an appendix in Oxford, 1990), has been translated into more than 20 languages and used in dozens of published studies around the world.

Various learning strategy instruments have disclosed research results beyond those that have been mentioned above. These additional findings include the following: L2 learning strategy use is significantly related to L2 learning motivation, gender, age, culture, brain hemisphere dominance, career orientation, academic major, beliefs, and the nature of the L2 task. A number of these findings have been summarized in Oxford (1999a, 1999b).

ü Implications for L2 Teaching

The research synthesized has four implications for classroom practice: assessing styles and strategies in the L2 classroom, attuning L2 instruction and strategy instruction to learners’ style preferences, remembering that no single L2 instructional methodology fits all students, and preparing for and conducting strategy instruction.

ü Assessing Styles and Strategies in the L2 Classroom

L2 teachers could benefit by assessing the learning styles and the strategy use of their students, because such assessment leads to greater understanding of styles and strategies. Teachers also need to assess their styles and strategies, so that they will be aware of their preferences and of possible biases. Useful means exist to make these assessments, as mentioned earlier. Teachers can learn about assessment options by reading books or journals, attending professional conferences, or taking relevant courses or workshops. The more that the teachers know about their students’ style preferences, the more effectively they can orient their L2 instruction, as well as the strategy teaching that can be interwoven into language instruction, matched to those style preferences. Some learners might need instruction presented more visually, while others might require more auditory, kinesthetic, or tactile types of instruction. Without adequate knowledge about their individual students’ style preferences, teachers cannot systematically provide the needed instructional variety.

m. Advantages and Disadvantages

In subject areas outside of L2 learning, the use of learning strategies is demonstrably related to student achievement and proficiency (Pressley & Associates, 1990). Research has repeatedly shown this relationship in content fields ranging from physics to reading and from social studies to science. In light of this remarkable association between learning strategy use and positive learning outcomes, it is not surprising that students who frequently employ learning strategies enjoy a high level of self-efficacy, i.e., a perception of being effective as learners (Zimmerman & Pons, 1986).

In the L2 arena, early studies of so-called “good language learners” (Naiman, Fröhlich, Stern, & Todesco, 1975; Rubin, 1975) determined that such learners consistently used certain types of learning strategies, such as guessing meaning from the context. Later studies found that there was no single set of strategies always used by “good language learners,” however. Those studies found that less able learners used strategies in a random, unconnected, and uncontrolled manner (Abraham & Vann, 1987; Chamot et al., 1996), while more effective learners showed careful orchestration of strategies, targeted in a relevant, systematic way at specific L2 tasks. In an investigation by Nunan (1991), more effective learners differed from less effective learners in their greater ability to reflect on and articulate their own language learning processes. In a study of learners of English in Puerto Rico, more successful students used strategies for active involvement more frequently than did less successful learners, according to Green and Oxford (1995). The same researchers also commented that the number and type of learning strategies differed according to whether the learner was in a foreign language environment or a second language setting. In their review of the research literature, Green and Oxford discovered that second language learners generally employed more strategies (with a higher frequency) than did foreign language learners.

n. Application

In a classroom that incorporates learning strategies instruction, the teacher and the students attend to the learning process and consider how to improve it. In a learner-centered classroom, both the teacher and the students must share the responsibility of learning. Both must believe that by focusing on learning strategies, learning will be enhanced. Learning strategies instruction requires a learner-centered approach to teaching.

Exemplifying the strategies learners are already using is enjoyable and inspirational because it illustrates students’ abilities in a real context. You can do this by walking the class through an activity such as reading a newspaper story, preparing an oral presentation about an artist, or studying for a test. Ask them questions designed to identify the processes they used to complete the assignment. See an example below.

TEACHER PROMPTING STUDENTS

Teacher: Here is an article I found this morning in the very popular Italian daily newspaper Il Messaggero. I would like you to read it. It’s a new article that you haven’t seen before. What are you going to do first?

Student A: I am going to look at the title and the illustrations to see what it’s about.

Teacher: Good! You will be using a very useful learning strategy called Making Predictions. What will you do next?

Student B: I’ll try to remember if we’ve ever talked about this subject in class.

Teacher: Yes! You will then be using the strategy Activating Background Knowledge. That’s a very effective strategy to prepare you for what you will read and it should make the reading easier.

Through reflecting on Strategic Thinking, your students will begin to develop an awareness of how they learn in different contexts and for different tasks. Introducing self-reflection at the beginning of the year establishes a climate that encourages continual investigation into how they learn. Remember to participate in these reflective activities with your students and to share your own successful (and unsuccessful) learning strategies.

XVIII. Cooperative Learning
1. h. Definition

According to Larsen (2000), cooperative or collaborative learning essentially involves students learning from each other in groups. In her opinion, strengthened by Jacob (1998), in this method cooperation is not only a way of learning, but also a theme to be communicated about and studied. On the other hand, Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec in McCaffery (2006:3) argues that cooperative learning is the instructional use of small groups so that students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning. Beside, Kagan (1990) argues that cooperative learning is a methodology that employs a variety of learning activities to improve students’ understanding of a subject by using a structured approach which involves a series of steps, requiring students to create, analyze and apply concepts

In addition, Millis (1996) says that cooperative learning is a generic term for various small group interactive instructional procedures. Students work together on academic tasks in small groups to help themselves and their teammates learn together. Another definition comes from Abismara (2001). He says that cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it.

Based on those definitions, finally I can conclude that cooperative learning is a method of learning that involves students to work together in groups not only in order to obtain knowledges, but also enhance the students’ social skills.

Language aspects that are emphasized in this approach are grammar, pronunciation ( sound system ), and vocabulary. While, language skills that are emphasized in this approach are speaking, reading, writing, and listening.

i. Characteristics

According to Larsen (2000:167-168) , there are 9 principles of cooperativelearning. They are ;

Students are encouraged to think in terms of ‘positive interdependence’ which means that the students are not thinking competitively and individualistically, but rather cooperatively and in terms of the group.
In cooperative learning, students often stay together in the same groups for a period of time so they can learn how to work better together. This allows students to learn from each other and also gives them practice in how to get along with people different from themselves.
The efforts of an individual help not only the individual to be rewarded, but also others in the class.
Social skills need to be explicitly taught.
Language acquisition is facilitated by students interacting in the target language.
Although students work together, each student is individually accountable.
Responsibility and accountability for each other’s learning is shared.
Each group member should be encouraged to feel responsible for participating and for learning.
1. Teachers not only teach language; they teach cooperation as well.

Beside, the characteristics of cooperative learning, based on Johnson and Smith (1991) are ;

Positive Interdependence

Team members are obliged to rely on one another to achieve their goal.

Individual Accountability

All students in a group are held accountable for doing their share of the work.

Face-to-Face promotive interaction

Group assignments should be constructed so that the work cannot be simply parcelled out and done individually. Assignments must include work that has to be done interactively.

Appropriate collaborative skills

Students are encouraged and helped to develop and practice trust building, leadership, decision-making, communication and conflict management.

Group processing

Team members set up group goals, periodically assess what they are doing well as a team, and identify changes they will make to function more effectively in the future.

Heterogeneous Groups

Individuals benefit the most from working with people different from themselves.

j. Goal

According to Ibrahim, the goals of cooperative learning are ;

The results of academic learning.

cooperative learning can benefit both the student and the student group under the working group on completing academic tasks. Group of students will be tutors for students under the group, so students under this group get special help from peers, who have the same orientation and language. In this tutorial process, students will increase the group of academic ability as providing service as a tutor requires thinking more deeply about the relationship of ideas contained in certain materials.

Acceptance of individual.

cooperative learning.

Requires special skills of teachers so that not all teachers can do or use of cooperative learning.
Working in groups can often involve situations where the group moves to fast for a student. It allows work to get done without knowing that every person in that group actually understands what was done. Another disadvantage is if there is group member that doesn’t understand the information at all. There may be one group member who doesn’t learn as quickly as the others, and get left behind, and ultimately not learn anything at all. Similarly, if one does not learn as quickly and the group tries to slow down to explain things to this member. The whole group may end up falling behind.
Someone may try to take over the group and dictate what everyone does. These type of people are not good group workers. Not all people are given an equal voice in a group. Usually there is one group leader that everyone defers to. Another person takes care of the data. Some people end up feeling overlooked or unappreciated. Another problem in working in groups is dictatorship. One person may take control and not allow others to share their knowledge.
More quiet people may not feel comfortable expressing themselves and their ideas with a group. In addition, sometimes a student feels not as smart as the other students and allows them to do all the work.
Some group members may not contribute to the activity, therefore one or two people end up doing all the work. On the other hand, one may become too much of a leader and not involve the other group members in decisions and just run the activity his/her own way.
1. Another disadvantage can be if one group member doesn’t contribute as much as the others do. This will often leave the other members frustrated and the student who isn’t contributing won’t really learn anything.
2. n. Application

According to McCaffery, cooperative learning can be applicated in all level of education. However, the techniques that are used are different, appropriate with the level of school.

Elementary School or Primary School

Elementary students’ are less familiar with schooling and society in general. Thus, socialization is often an accepted aspect of teaching at this level. In this case of cooperative learning, socialization involves the teaching of how to work with others and explicit attention to fostering prosocial skills among students.

The techniques that can be used for this level are STAD ( Student Team-Achievement Divisions ) that can promotes positive interdependence via the use of team recognition based on how group members perform on quizzes for which they had studied together and jigsaw II that can encourages positive interdependence because each group member becomes the group’s only expert on a particular text.

Secondary School

At this age, according to McCaffery (2006:51), peers become more important in the students of this level’s lives. The teacher of this level, as Jones and Taylor, should participate and discuss their experiences in the class room using this approach. Rather than groups always reporting to the teacher and the whole class, sometimes they would share only with other groups. And because cooperative learning involves students in speaking and listening to one another, it is ideal for integrated skills activities.

Postsecondary or Tertiary Level

Teaching students at the postsecondary level offers its own set of advantages and challenges. Teachers need to carefully explain their rationale for promoting student-student interaction. This inflexibility in student attitudes may problematize the use of unconventional methods. However, actually tertiary level students are often most ready for independent work, such as project.

XIX. Multiple Intelligences
1. h. Definition

Howard Gardner, a developmental psychologist, proposed a theory regarding the nature of intelligence that stands in contradiction to the prevailing psychometric perspective. This theory of multiple intelligences, posited in Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1993a), stressed the importance of not viewing intelligence as uni-dimensional construct, but rather as a series of seven independent intelligences. The seven intelligences enable the individual “to perform transformations and modifications of one’s perceptions” and “to recreate aspects of one’s experiences” (Gardner 1983, p. 173).

If we are to achieve a richer culture, rich in contrasting values, we must recognize the whole gamut of human potentialities, and so weave a less arbitrary social fabric, one in which each diverse human gift will find a fitting place (Bruce Campbell, 1990)

i. Characteristics
1. 1. Characteristics of Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

Following are the qualities of logical-mathematical intelligence as suggested by Campbell, et al. (1996:35):

Perceives objects and their function in the environment.
Is familiar with the concepts of quantity, time, and cause and effect.
Uses abstract symbols to represent concrete objects and concepts.
Demonstrates skill at logical problem-solving.
Perceives patterns and relationships.
Poses and tests hypotheses.
Uses diverse mathematical skills such as estimating, calculating algorithms, interpreting statistics, and visually representing information in graphic form.
Enjoys complex operations such as calculus, physics, computer programming, or research methods.
Thinks mathematically by gathering evidence, making hypotheses, formulating models, developing counter-examples, and building strong arguments.
Uses technology to solve mathematical problems.
Expresses interest in careers such as accounting, computer technology, law, engineering, and chemistry.
Creates new models or perceives new insights in science or mathematics.

2. Characteristics of Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

An individual with a highly-developed bodily-kinesthetic intelligence may exhibit the following attributes (Campbell et al., 1996:68):

Explores the environment and objects through touch and movement. Prefers to touch, handle, or manipulate what is to be learned.
Develops coordination and a sense of timing.
Learns best by direct involvement and participation. Remembers most clearly what was done, rather than what was said or observed.
Enjoys concrete learning experiences such as field trips, model building, or participating in role play, games, assembling objects, or physical exercise.
Shows dexterity in working by means of small or gross motor movements.
Is sensitive and responsive to physical environments and physical systems.
Demonstrates skill in acting, athletics, dancing, sewing, carving, or keyboarding.
Demonstrates balance, grace, dexterity, and precision in physical tasks.
Has the ability to fine-tune and perfect physical performance through mind and body integration.
Understands and lives by healthy physical standards.
May express interest in careers such as those of an athlete, dancer, surgeon, or builder.
Invents new approaches to physical skills or create new forms in dance, sports, or other physical activities.

3. Characteristics of Spatial Intelligence

The likely attributes of a person with well-developed visual-spatial intelligence are (Campbell, et al., 1996:97)

Learns by seeing and observing. Recognizes faces, objects, shapes, colors, details, and scenes.
Navigates self and objects effectively through space, as when moving one’s body through apertures, finding one’s way in a forest without a trail, moving a car through traffic, or paddling a canoe on a river.
Perceives and produces mental imagery, thinks in pictures, and visualizes detail. Uses visual images as an aid in recalling information.
Decodes graphs, charts, maps, and diagrams. Learns with graphic representation or through visual media.
Enjoys doodling, drawing, painting, sculpting, or otherwise reproducing objects in visible forms.
Enjoys constructing three-dimensional products, such as original objects, mock bridges, houses, or containers. Is capable of mentally changing the form of an object—such as folding a piece of paper into a complex shape and visualizing its new form, or mentally moving objects in space to determine how they interact with other objects, such as gears, turning parts of machinery.
Sees things in different ways or from “new perspectives” such as the negative space around a form as well as the form itself or detects one form “hidden” in another.
Perceives both obvious and subtle patterns.
Creates concrete or visual representation of information.
Is proficient at representational or abstract design.
Expresses interest or skill in being an artist, photographer, engineer, videographer, architect, designer, art critic, pilot, or other visually-oriented careers.
Creates new forms of visual-spatial media or original works of art.

4. Characteristics of Musical Intelligence

A person with a well-developed musical intelligence most likely (Campbell et al.,1996:135)

Listens and responds with interest to a variety of sounds including the human voice, environmental sounds, and music, and organizes such sounds into meaningful patterns.
Enjoys and seeks out opportunities to hear music or environmental sounds in the learning environment. Is eager to be around and learn from music and musicians.
Responds to music kinesthetically by conducting, performing, creating, or dancing; emotionally through responding to the moods and tempos of music; intellectually through discussing and analyzing music; and/or aesthetically by evaluating and exploring the content and meaning of music.
Recognizes and discusses different musical styles, genres, and cultural variations. Demonstrates interest in the role music has and continues to play in human lives.
Collects music and information about music in various forms, both recorded and printed, and may collect and play musical instruments including synthesizers.
Develops the ability to sing and/or play an instrument alone or with others.
Uses the vocabulary and notations of music.
Develops a personal frame of reference for listening to music.
Enjoys improvising and playing with sounds, and when given a phrase of music, can complete a musical statement in a way that makes sense.
May offer his or her own interpretation of what a composer is communicating through music. May also analyze and critique musical selections.
May express interest in careers involving music such as being a singer, instrumentalist, sound engineer, producer, critic, instrument maker, teacher or conductor.
May create original compositions and/or musical instruments.

5. Characteristics of Interpersonal Intelligence

Campbell et al. list the following characteristics of a person with highly developed interpersonal intelligence (1996:160):

Bonds with parents and interacts with others.
Forms and maintains social relationships.
Recognizes and uses a variety of ways to relate to others.
Perceives the feelings, thoughts, motivations, behaviors, and lifestyles of others.
Participates in collaborative efforts and assumes various roles as appropriate from follower to leader in group endeavors.
Influences the opinions or actions of others.
Understands and communicates effectively in both verbal and nonverbal ways.
Adapts behavior to different environments or groups and from feedback from others.
Perceives diverse perspectives in any social or political issue.
Develops skills in mediation, organizing others for a common cause, or working with others of diverse ages or backgrounds.
Expresses an interest in interpersonally-oriented careers such as teaching, social work, counseling, management, or politics.
Develops new social processes or models.

6. Characteristics of Intrapersonal Intelligence

Campbell, et al. provide the following list of characteristics that may be possessed by a person with a highly developed intrapersonal intelligence (1996:196):

Is aware of his range of emotions.
Finds approaches and outlets to express his feelings and thoughts.
Develops an accurate model of self.
Is motivated to identify and pursue goals.
Establishes and lives by an ethical value system.
Works independently.
Is curious about the “big questions” in life: meaning, relevance, and purpose.
Manages ongoing learning and personal growth.
Attempts to seek out and understand inner experiences.
Gains insights into the complexities of self and the human condition.
Strives for self-actualization.
Empowers others.

Types of intelligences
Linguistics	Explanation and understanding through the use of words
Visual	Explanation and comprehension through the use of picture, graphs, maps, etc.
Body/ kinesthetic	Ability to use body to express ideas, accomplish tasks, create moods, etc.
Interpersonal	Ability to get along with others, work with others to accomplish tasks.
Logical/ Mathematical	Use of logic and mathematical models to represent and work with ideas.
Musical	Ability to recognize and communicate using melody, rhythm, and harmony.
Intrapersonal	Learning through self-knowledge leading to understanding of motives, goals, strengths and weaknesses.
Environmental	Ability to recognize elements of the natural world around us and learn from them.

j. Goal

The multiple intelligences theory represented/represents a definition of human nature, from a cognitive perspective, ie., how we perceive; how we are aware of things.

The types of intelligence that a person possesses (Gardner suggests most of us are strong in three types) indicates not only a persons capabilities, but also the manner or method in which they prefer to learn and develop their strengths – and also to develop their weaknesses.

Intelligence is a mixture of several abilities (Gardner explains seven intelligences, and alludes to others) that are all of great value in life. But nobody’s good at them all. In life we need people who collectively are good at different things. A well-balanced world, and well-balanced organisations and teams, are necessarily comprised of people who possess different mixtures of intelligences. This gives the group a fuller collective capability than a group of identically able specialists.

Incredibly many schools, teachers, and entire education systems, persist in the view that a child is either intelligent or not, and moreover that the ‘intelligent’ kids are ‘good’ and the ‘unintelligent’ kids are ‘bad’. Worse still many children grow up being told that they are not intelligent and are therefore not of great worth; (the “you’ll never amount to anything” syndrome is everywhere).

k. Teacher and Students Role

Role of the Teacher

Teacher becomes curriculum developers, lesson designers and analysts, activity finders or inventors, and, most critically, orchestrators of a rich array of multisensory activities within the realistic constraints of time, space, and resources of the classroom.

Role of the students

Students are active learners, they use their particular intelligences to gain knowledge, or experiment with each they find to appropriate ones for them.

l. Technique of Presentation

Techiques of Multiple Intelligences

Linguistic

Speeches
Story telling
Written reports

Visual

Poster making
Use of overheat projector/ b-board

Body/ Kinestetic

Role playing
Co-operative learning

Interpersonal

Co-operative tasks
Class discussions
Multiplayer games

Logical/ mathematical

Problem solving
Riddles

Musical

Choral reading
Lyric poem

Intrapersonal

Poetry writing
Goal setting
Concentration exercises
Meditations
Silent reflection time

Environmental

Outdoor education
Nature walk
Environmental studies
Field trips
Bird watching
Ecology studies
Identifying leaves and rocks

m. Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages

Students are likely to become more engaged in learning as they use learning modes that match their intelligences strengths.
Student’s regular reflection on their learning broadens their definitions of effective and acceptable teaching and learning practices.
Students’ increased engagement and success in learning stimulates teachers to raise their expectations, initiating a powerful expectation response cycle that can lead to greater achievement levels for all.
As a teacher and learner you realize that there are many ways to be “smart”
All forms of intelligence are equally celebrated.
By having students create work that is displayed to parents and other members of the community, your school could see more parent and community involvement.
A sense of increased self-worth may be seen as students build on their strengths and work towards becoming an expert in certain areas
Students may develop strong problem solving skills that they can use real life situations

Disadvantages

Multiple intelligences interfere with each other if the class is not planned carefully and the activities are mixed up.
Some students might have trouble defining their strong intelligences.
Sometimes, this method lacks support from parents and teachers, as they consider mathematical and linguistic abilities worthier than any other ability.

n. Application

Classroom Application
Multiple Intelligences	Teacher Centered	Student Centered
Verbal/ linguistic

Present content verbally
Ask questions aloud and look for student feedback
Interviews

Student Presents Material
Students read content and prepare a presentation for his/her classmates
Students debate over an issue

Logical/ Mathematical

Provide brain teasers or challenging questions to begin lessons.
Make logical connections between the subject matter and authentic situations to answer the question “why?”
Students categorize information in logical sequences for organization.
Students create graphs or charts to explain written info.
Students participate in web quests associated with the content

Bodily/Kinesthetic

Use props during lecture
Provide tangible items pertaining to content for students to examine
Review using sports related examples (throw a ball to someone to answer a question)
Students use computers to research subject matter.
Students create props of their own explaining subject matter (shadow boxes, mobiles, etc…)
Students create review games.

Visual/ spatial

When presenting the information, use visuals to explain content.
PowerPoint Slides, Charts, Graphs, cartoons, videos, overheads, smart boards
Have students work individually or in groups to create visuals pertaining to the information:
Posters; timelines; models; powerpoint slides; maps; illustrations, charts; concept mapping

Musical

Play music in the classroom during reflection periods
Show examples or create musical rhythms for students to remember things
Create a song or melody with the content embedded for memory
Use well known songs to memorize formulas, skills, or test content

Interpersonal

Be aware of body language and facial expressions
Offer assistance whenever needed
Encourage classroom discussion
Encourage collaboration among peers
Group work strengthens interpersonal connections
Peer feedback and peer tutoring
Students present to the class
Encourage group editing

Intrapersonal

Encourage journaling as a positive outlet for expression
Introduce web logging (blogs)
Make individual questions welcome
Create a positive environment.
Journaling
Individual research on content
Students create personal portfolios of work

Naturalistic

Take students outside to enjoy nature while in learning process (lecture)
Compare authentic subject matter to natural occurrences.
Relate subject matter to stages that occur in nature (plants, weather, etc)
Students organize thoughts using natural cycles
Students make relationships among content and the natural environment (how has nature had an impact?)
Students perform community service

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What are some examples of tasks that can be used in the classroom?

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